CALIFORNIA STATE COMMISSION OF HORTICULTURE 



APPLE GROWING IN 
CALIFORNIA 




California State Printing Office 



OFFICERS OF THE CALIFORNIA STATE COMMISSION OF 
HORTICULTURE. 



EXECUTIVE OFFICE. 
Capitol Building, Sacramento. 

A. J. COOK ^Commissioner 

GEO. P. WELDON Chief Deputy Commissioner 

E. J. VOSLER Secretary 

MISS MAUDE HIETT Clerk 

MRS. N. MITCHELL ^.-Stenographer 

INSECTARY DIVISION. 
Capitol Park, Sacramento. 

HARRY S. SMITH ^-Superintendent 

HENRY L. VIERECK. Assistant Superintendent 

E. J. BRANIGAN Field Deputy 

O. W. NEWMAN Assistant 

MRS. D. STEPHENS Stenographer 

QUARANTINE DIVISION. 
San Francisco Office: Room 11, Ferry Building. 

FREDERICK MASKEW-— Chief Deputy Quarantine Officer 

GEO. COMPERE Chief Quarantine Inspector 

B. B. WHITNEY Quarantine Inspector 

L. A. WHITNEY Quarantine Inspector 

ARCHIE CHATTERLEY _- Quarantine Inspector 

STEWART CHATTERLEY Quarantine Inspector 

MISS CLARE DUTTON _ —Stenographer and Clerk 

Los Angeles Office: Floor 9, Hall of Records. 
A. S. HOYT Deputy Quarantine Officer 

C. H. VARY Quarantine Inspector 

LEE A. STRONG Quarantine Inspector 

San Diego Office: Court House. 

H. V. M. HALL Quarantine Inspector 



/ 



THE STATE COMMISSION OF HORTICULTURE 
SACRAMENTO, CALIFORNIA 



Apple Growing in California 



^j 



A Practical Treatise Designed to Cover Some of the 

Important Phases of Apple Culture 

Within the State 



By GEO. P. WELDON 

Chief Deputy State Commissioner of Horticulture 



California 

State Printing Office 

1914 



13683 



V 



TABLE OF CONTENTS. 



Chapter I. 



STATISTICS 5 

Chapter II. 
VARIETIES II 

Chapter III. 
PROPAGATION OF THE APPLE 31 

Chapter IV. 
SELECTION OF TREE'S FOR PLANTING 35 

Chapter V. 
SOILS AND THEIR PREPARATION FOR PLANTING 3S 

Chapter VI. 
SETTING AND CARING FOR THE YOUNG TREES— II 

Chapter VII. 
PRUNING 46 

Chapter VIII. 
TOP-WORKING APPLE TREES 60 

Chapter IX. 
INTERCROPPING 62 

Chapter X. 
IRRIGATION, CULTIVATION— COVER CROPS AND FERTILIZERS — 63 

Chapter XI. 
THINNING 67 

Chapter XII. 
INJURY AND PROTECTION OF APPLES FROM FREEZING TO 

Chapter XTII. 
SPRAYING THE APPLE -— 75 

Chapter XIV. 
INSECT PESTS OF THE APPLE 79 

Chapter XV. 
DISEASES OF THE APPLE •»- 

Chapter XVI. 
PICKING, GRADING AND PACKING - r > 

Chapter XVII. 
PY-PRODUCTS - 102 

Chapter XVIII. 

PRODUCTION, CONSUMPTION AND RECIPES - 104 

Chapter XIX. 
INSECTICIDES AND FUNGICIDES - lv - 



D. of D. 
ti 29 5 



PREFACE. 



The great importance of the apple in our state, the many failures 
among those who have attempted to grow this fruit, the common opinion 
that an apple orchard can not be made a paying proposition, and the 
hopeless neglect and consequent failure to produce what might he 
beautiful and profitable orchards, together with a dearth of litera- 
ture on the subject, are some of the things that induced the author to 
write this little book. It is published with a realization of its incom- 
pleteness and possible errors, but if it will in a small way, at least, serve 
as a guide to future profitable apple culture in California, the efforts 
put forth will in no way be regretted. 

While primarily a treatise on apple culture, several of the chapters 
are designed to teach lessons that will be valuable in the culture of other 
fruits : For example, chapters on Pruning, Intercropping and Cover 
Crops. 

I wish to express thanks to Dr. A. J. Cook, under whose direction the 
investigations were conducted, and who has at all times cooperated 
with me in the work. His valuable assistance in reading the manu- 
script is appreciated. 

Thanks are also due Prof. A. V. Stubenrauch, Pomologist of the Stale 
University at Berkeley, Mr. W. H. Volck, County Horticultural Com- 
missioner of Santa Cruz County and Mr. W. S. Ballard, Pathologist, 
Fruit-Disease Investigations, United States Department of Agriculture, 
each of whom kindly read parts of my manuscript; also to Mr. E. J. 
Vosler, Secretary of the State Commission of Horticulture and Mr. H. S. 
Smith, Superintendent of the State Insectary, for the same courtesy. 

For illustrations I am indebted to the State University, Mr. C. B. 
Weeks, County Horticultural Commissioner of Tehama County, 
Mr. 0. E. Bremner, County Horticultural Commissioner of Sonoma 
County, and Mr. J. F. Benton of Areata. 

GEO. P. WELDON. 

Sacramento, California, November 5, 1914. 



APPLE GROWING IN CALIFORNIA. 



CHAPTER I. 

STATISTICS. 

There is no more cosmopolitan fruit among the long list grown, 
than the apple. It adapts itself to the cold climates of the north as well 
as to the more temperate regions farther south. Practically every state 
in the Union boasts of some places where apples can be produced, and as 
far north on the continent as British Columbia we find them doing 
remarkably well. The climate and soil in many parts of California are 
admirably suited to the growing of this fruit. Prof. E. J. Wickson. in 
his "California Fruits," divides the state into five regions, viz : northern 
coast region, central coast region, interior valleys and foothills, moun- 
tain valleys and plateaus, and southern California, and gives a long 
list of varieties that are adapted to the diversified conditions of these 
regions. The central coast region has so far produced a very great part 
of the state's output of apples, in fact is the only region which has taken 
up apple orcharding on a large scale. With splendid transportation 
facilities and with conditions of soil and climate such that certain 
varieties have done well, Santa Cruz and Sonoma counties, despite their 
low elevation and frequent fogs, have produced Yellow Bellfiowcrs. 
Yellow Newtowns and Gravenstelns, that have made them famous. The 
northern coast region, including within its borders Mendocino and 
Humboldt counties, is fast coming to the front, and the vast region 
classified under the name of "mountain valleys and plateaus" contains 
an abundance of land upon which apples of superior quality can be 
grown. From an elevation of about 2,000 to 6,000 feet along the Sierra 
Nevada range may be seen orchards and remnants of orchards in prac- 
tically all of the counties which extend into these mountains. Fig. 1 
shows an orchard at an elevation of about 5,000 feet. Transportation 
facilities are not such at present as to favor these sections, and since the 
markets are well supplied with shipments from Watsonville and other 
railroad points, the pioneer orchardists of the mountains have been 
forced to give up their practice of hauling the crop a long distance and 
the orchards no longer paying are neglected. Many splendid trees in 
some of these old remnants of orchards may still be seen, indicative of 
the possibilities of apple culture in the mountainous parts of the state. 

The economic value of the apple is probably greater than that of any 
other fruit. Its cosmopolitan nature has made it a favorite for planting, 
and its food value is such as to make it prized above all our fruits. The 
cry of overproduction has rung in our ears until we wonder sometimes 
that any one has the nerve to go into the business. Despite this cry there 
is still a good profit to he made from the well eared for orchard of good 
varieties, well grown and packed. The apple business of the future 
must go to those sections where the fruit can be produced best, for small, 
gnarly apples will not pay for the expense of growing them, while the 



APPLE GROWING IN CALIFORNIA. 




APPLE GROWING IN CALIFORNIA. 7 

finer grades will command a handsome price. Undesirable varieties 
in each locality must be weeded out, either by their removal entirely or 
by grafting them over to desirable varieties. The orchard containing as 
many varieties as there are trees must give way to one of only a few 
of the best. Specialization is the keynote to success in the apple business, 
as elsewhere, and only the sections which unite in the growing of a few- 
well adapted varieties can hope to gain a reputation for their product 
and the market which as a consequence will be created. 

It is a well known fact that the acreage planted to apple trees in 
recent years has been very large, and this fact has been a cause for 
alarm among those already in the business and has discouraged planting 
among others. One of the chief factors limiting the production of apples 




Fig. 2. — Orchard scene near Julian, San Diego County. (Original) 

is frost, and practically every state where they are grown is subject to 
periodical injury from it. and because the acreage of this fruit is great, 
it does not necessarily follow that the crop will be great every season, 
and prices low as a consequence. This one factor, frost, has driven many 
a man in the apple business to the "wall," and no doubt will continue 
to drive others, for planting in frost-subjected areas, because of an occa- 
sional good crop, will never entirely cease. California can boast of 
areas that are as free from killing spring frosts as any that may be 
found, and one who is growing fruit of any kind may feel reasonably 
sure of a fairly good crop annually. This assurance of an annual crop 
in many parts of California is not possessed by states less fortunately 
situated, and is a great point in her favor. 



8 APPLE GROWING IN CALIFORNIA. 

At the present time the apple business is somewhat discouraging, but 
there is no reason to doubt that the time will come when it will be good 
again. Periods of low prices- always have a tendency to weed out many 
unprofitable orchards, thus decreasing the acreage to the decided advan- 
tage of those that are properly cared for or more favorably situated. 

In the annual reports received from the county horticultural com- 
missioners for the past year, the bearing and non-bearing acreage of 
apples in the various counties where these officials are at work, was 
given. A table, which follows, has been compiled, showing the counties 
from which these reports came, and the number of acres in each case. 

TABLE GIVING ACREAGE OF APPLES. 

County Bearing Non-bearing 



Alameda 

Butte 

Contra Costa 

El Dorado 

Glenn 

Humboldt 

Inyo j 

Kern 

Lake 

Los Angeles 

Madera 

Mendocino 

Merced 

Modoc 

Monterey 

Nevada 

Placer 

Riverside 

Sacramento 

San Benito 

San Bernardino 

San Diego 

Santa Barbara 

Santa Clara 

Santa Cruz 

Shasta 

Siskiyou 

Sonoma 

Stanislaus 

Sutter 

Tehama 500 

Tulare 300 

Yolo I 25 

Yuba 430 



L36 


100 


500 


400 


160 


80 


350 


200 


78 


140 


1,100 




1,000 


1,100 


100 


1,857 


135 


62 


1,400 


300 


200 


7o 


948 


L60 


60 


40 


266 


335 


4,500 


600 


1,500 


200 


150 - . 




198 


2,419 


344 


200 


3-25 


150 


1.024 


10,131 


1,110 


271 


400 


150 


430 


024 


15,000 


1,500 


300 


140 


800 


1,250 


6,998 


5,167 


113 


20 


200 


511 



Total 41,649 27,891 



During the past summer a list of twelve questions was sent out to one 
hundred and eighty apple growers in the following counties : Butte, 
El Dorado, Fresno, Humboldt, Madera, Mendocino, Monterey, River- 
side, San Bernardino, San Diego, Santa Cruz, Sonoma, and Tehama. 
Sixty-eight out of the total number to whom the list was sent responded, 
and the answers to these questions contain so much of interest that a 
table has been prepared, giving them in full just as they were received, 
with the exception of question No. 12, which is answered under the 
i K-ading "Varieties." 



APPLE GROWING IN CALIFORNIA. 9 

Following is the list of questions and the table, in which the numbers 
in first column correspond to those in list : 

1. How many packed boxes of apples per tree do you consider an 
average crop for your orchard ? 

2. How many packed boxes per tree do your heaviest bearing trees 
produce ? 

3. How old are your trees ? 

4. What per cent of your apple crop is packed ? 

5. What per cent is dried? 

6. What per cent is made into cider, jelly, vinegar, or sold locally ? 
Indicate which. 

7. What is the average price per pound net to the grower, for dried 
apples ? 

8. What is the average price per box to the grower for packed 
apples ? 

9. What is the approximate elevation of your orchard? 

10. Do you practice thinning? 

11. Is vour orchard irrigated? 



10 



APPLE GROWING IN CALIFORNIA. 




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APPLE GROWING IN CALIFORNIA. 



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APPLE GROWING IN CALIFORNIA. 



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14 APPLE GROWING IN CALIFORNIA. 



CHAPTER II. 

VARIETIES. 

It is interesting to note in connection with first choice of varieties 
in answer to question No. 12 (Name your leading varieties in the order 
of their importance), that one man, reporting from Butte County, 
places Black Ben first. Four reporting from El Dorado — and no two 
agreeing — gave their first choice as follows: Borne Beauty, Esopus, 
Baldwin and Sutton. One man from Fresno reports Fameuse as his 
first choice. Humboldt County is represented by six growers, giving 
their first choice as Wagener, King, Esopus, Yellow Bell flower, and two 
favored Rhode Island Greening. Two reports from Madera County 
were received, both giving Winter Pearmain as the leading variety for 
this section. In Mendocino County the following varieties are said to 
be the best by four who answered the questions : Jonathan, Swaar, King 
and Baldwin. One report from Monterey County places the Yellow 
Newtown first. Eleven orchardists reported from Riverside County, 
giving a leading place to the following: King David, Esopus, Rhode 
Island, Greening, three favored Rome Beauty and five Delicious. Eight 
orchardists were heard from in San Bernardino County, one giving the 
Jonathan first place, two Winesap and five Rome Beauty. From San 
Diego County nine reports came, one giving Jonathan as the leading 
variety, one Julian Duchess, one Paragon, three Yellow Newtown, and 
three Yellow Bellflower. As would naturally be expected, only two 
varieties were given first place by nine of the leading orchardists report- 
ing from Santa Cruz County; six favored the Yellow Newtown and 
three the Yellow Bellflower. 

The second county in importance from the standpoint of produc- 
tion, viz, Sonoma, is represented in these answers by eleven growers, 
eight of whom favor the Gravenstein, one the Alexander, one the Rome 
Beauty and one the Yellow Newtown. One report from Tehama County 
gives the Yellow Newtown first place. 

The following is a complete list of the varieties, arranged alphabet- 
ically as they were sent in, making a total of forty-eight in all, reported 
upon. Brief descriptions of twenty of these and illustrations of nine of 
the best follow, also a supplementary list of varieties not reported upon 
by growers, but most of which the writer has seen growing somewhere 
in the state, and which are recommended for trial by those who are 
experimenting with varieties. Thus a total of seventy-two varieties, 
not including the lists of summer varieties and crabs, is given. This 
contains practically all varieties commonly found, and it is hoped may 
serve as a guide in the selection of suitable kinds for future planting 
by some to whom this book may find its way. 



AIM-I.K GROWING IN CALIFORNI \. 



15 



Alexander 

Arkansas 

Arkansas Black 

Baldwin 

Banana 

Ben Davis 

Black Ben 

Champion 

Cook's Seedling 

Delaware Bed 

Delicious 

Esopus 

Fall Pippin 

Fallawater 

Fameuse 

Gloria Mundi 



VARIETIES. 
< rravenstein 
Grimes 
Hoover 
Jonathan 
Julian Duchess 
King 

King David 
Lankford 
Lawver 
Mcintosh 
Minkler 

Missouri Pippin 
Orange Pippin 
Ortley 
Paragon 
Bed Astrachan 



I J<mI Pearmain 

Red Winter 

Rhode Island Greening 

I tome Beauty 

Smith 

Stark 

Stayman Winesap 

Sutton 

Swaar 

Twenty Ounce 

Wagener 

White Pippin 

Winesap 

Winter Pearmain 

Yellow Bellflower 

Yellow Newtown 



SUPPLEMENTARY LIST. 

Bailey Sweet Bambo 

Bietigheimer Romanite 

Canada Bed Sheepnose 

Keswick Codling Sheriff 

Maiden Blush Smokehouse 

Mann Tolman 

McMahon White Utter 

Northern Spy Walbridge 

Northwestern Wealthy 

Pewaukee Wolf River 

Plum Cider York Imperial 
Balls 



SUMMER VARIETIES. 

The exceptionally early season for ripening of all fruits in parts of 
California opens up the possibility of growing summer varieties of 
apples that will reach the markets earlier than those from any other 
of our apple growing states. With San Francisco, Los Angeles, Sacra- 
mento and other large cities at hand, there should be a good local 
demand. For a great many years the Sacramento Valley river bottom 
below Sacramento has grown Red Astrachans and other summer varie- 
ties to good advantage. The severe attack of the codling moth has 
probably done more toward discouraging growers than anything else. 
As this pest is entirely under the control of those who take the necessary 
pains to fight it in the proper way — as discussed in the chapter on 
"Insect Pests of the Apple" — there is no good reason why it should 
put any one out of business. With proper attention to pruning, spray- 
ing and cutting out blight, along with the proper handling of the soil, 
much greater returns should be realized than those of the average 
grower at present. 

The following list of varieties is printed in the order of their ripening. 
They are all good, each one having some special characteristics to com- 
mend it : 

Early Harvest Yellow Transparent 

Oldenburg Red Astrachan 

Red June < 'henango 



16 APPLE GROWING IN CALIFORNIA. 

CRAB APPLES. 

Crab apples will always be prized by many for making jelly, pickling 
and preserving purposes. To those who wish to set out a few trees the 
following list of varieties is recommended : 

Florence Siberian, Red or Yellow 

Hyslop Transcendent 

Martha Whitney 

ARKANSAS. 1 

The above variety is probably better known under the name of Mam- 
moth Black Twig, and is grown only to a very limited extent in the 
state. It is of the Winesap type, probably a seedling from it, but of 
somewhat inferior quality. The keeping qualities are about the same. 
Under some conditions it is quite subject to the Baldwin spot disease. 

The trees are very large and thrifty and are inclined to be uncertain 
bearers. 

ARKANSAS BLACK. 

This variety closely resembles the Winesap and is thought to be a 
seedling from it. In some parts of the state it is quite a popular 
variety, especially in southern California. It takes on a very deep red 
color, which polishes beautifully, making a good showing on the fruit 
stands, and usually commanding a ready sale. Quality is fair but some- 
what coarse. Keeping qualities are excellent. 

The trees are thifty growers as a rule, but are inclined to bear lightly 
in some sections of the country. Whether or not this applies to our 
California conditions the writer has been unable to determine. 

BALDWIN. 

There are few finer apples than this variety when at its prime. So 
far it has been grown to a limited extent in the state, being subject to 
an obscure disease known as Baldwin spot, which very often ruins it 
for market. In the East it is considered to be one of the standards. In 
a few favored localities in the mountains of California it has been 
found doing quite well, and in Sonoma County quite a large acreage 
has been planted, and with a few of the orchardists it is a popular 
variety. 

The trees are strong growers. 

BLACK BEN. 

While in times past the old Ben Davis apple has not only been a great 
producer but a money maker as well, there is little excuse at this time 
of keen competition among growers of superior varieties for planting 
it. Its place may be taken by the far superior Black Ben or Gano. 
While the quality of this apple is little if any better than the first men- 
tioned, the beautiful color mf&es it a good seller. It is not good 
judgment to advertise a fruit because of color — not taking into con- 
sideration the quality — yet as long as people prefer a red apple 
regardless of what is inside the skin, this will be a favorite variety. 
The keeping qualities are on a par with those of the common Ben Davis. 

Trees are ordinarily healthy and thrifty growers, and are inclined to 
bear regularly and heavily. If one wants to plant a Ben Davis apple, 
and still have a variety that sells well, this one should commend itself 
and should do well in sections where color attains its maximum in 
varieties. 



Mammoth Black Twig. 



APPLE GROWING IN CALIFORNIA. 



17 



DELICIOUS. 

(Fig. 3.) 

This being one of OUT newest varieties, has not been tested in the 
stale sufficiently to determine its true value. It is, however, quite prom- 
ising in certain parts of the foothills and mountainous sections of 
southern California. The quality is of the best and there are few 




Fig. 3. — The Delicious. (Original) 

apples more juicy and pleasant to the taste than this one, when in its 
prime. The shape is very irregular, making it a somewhat difficult 
variety to pack. The keeping qualities are good. 

Where this variety has been observed in the state, trees have done 
well, and have come into bearing quite early. Whether or not it will 
be a steady bearer remains to be seen. Indications at present are that 
it will be one of our best varieties in certain sections. Figure 4 shows 
a fine tree of this variety in the Frank Femmons orchard near Oakhurst. 



2 — 13fis;; 




Fig. 4. — A heavily loaded tree of the Delicious variety near Oakhurst, Madera 

County. ( Original ) 




Fig. 5.- The Gravenstein. (Original) 



APPLE GROWING EN CALIFORNIA. 



1!) 



GRAVENSTEIN. 
This very popular Call variety has been grown extensively only in 
the Sebastopol section of Sonoma County and has there reached its 
greatest perfection. It has been found doing well in many parts of the 
state. The Gravenstein is a favorite for general use during its season. 
When well colore,! il is golden yellow, beautifully streaked with red. 
The stem is very short and there is sometimes considerable trouble 
experienced with the dropping of the fruit before it is ripe. The Loss 
from dropping may be greatly lessened by careful thinning. It may 




Fig. 6. — The Grimes. (Original) 

be kept in cold storage for two or three months, but is inclined to go 
down rapidly upon being removed. 

In California the trees are usually thrifty and inclined to make quite 
a strong, heavy growth. 

The great success that has come to the apple growers of Sonoma 
County in growing this variety has made it standard for that section. 
and has illustrated the value of specializing in the apple business. 

GRIMES. 2 
During the investigations preparatory to the publication of this work, 
the above apple has not been commonly found growing in the state. 

-Grimes Golden Pippin. 



20 



APPLE GROWING IX CALIFORNIA. 



and is deserving of trial by those who are experimenting with varieties, 
as it is a showy apple of excellent quality, being popular both for eating 
and cooking purposes. Like most other apples of a light color it is 
somewhat delicate and must be handled with care. Keeping qualities 
are not very good, but no doubt vary much with apples from different 
localities. 

The trees are fairlv thrifty when grown on soil suited to them. 




Flf 



The Jonathan. (Original) 



Only an occasional one has been observed in this state, but on these some 
very tine specimens were growing. It is recommended for trial in the 
mountain sections, especially of southern California. 



JONATHAN. 

(Fig. 7.) 

This excellent variety has not been grown extensively in the state, 
but there are places in Riverside. San Bernardino, San Diego, El Do- 
rado, Mendocino and Humboldt counties, at least, where it has done 
well. Its beautiful red color, combined with excellent quality, makes it 



APPLE GROWING IN CALIFORNIA. 



21 



a favorite. When picked before too ripe it is ;i fairly good keeper, 
being in its prime during the holidays. In storage it is subject to a 
condition known as .Jonathan spot, and should not be held long after 
the first of January. 

The tree is inclined to be small under most conditions, and it should 
not he set except in good and well-adapted soil, and is not recommended 
for genera] planting in the state. Figure 8 is of a five-year-old Jonathan 
tree near Beaumont, and Figure !» of an older tree, well loaded with 
fruit in San Diego County. In both the orchards where these pictures 
were taken the trees had made a splendid, thrifty growth, and the fruit 
they produced was of the best. Some splendid, well-colored specimens 







Fig. s. — Fine specimens of Jonathan trees near Beaumont. Riverside County. 

(Original ) 

have been received from the J. E. Hassler orchard at Placerville. The 
excellence that this variety attains in Utah and Colorado, and the 
highest market prices that are received by growers in these states, make 
it desirable that it be grown in California only where it will attain some- 
where near the perfection that it does there. In general it is a fairly 
good producer, coming into bearing early and maturing crops with 
great regularity. 

Trees should be pruned heavily for the first live years, and the 
greatest strength of scaffold branches developed, as they have a tend- 
ency to grow slender and willow-like, thus being unable to hold up a 
heavy load of fruit to the best advantage. 



KING DAVID. 

This beautifully colored variety is becoming quite popular in some sec- 
tions of the state, hut as yet has not been thoroughly tested out under 
California conditions. In some of the newer sections of Riverside and 



22 



APPLE GROWING IN CALIFORNIA. 



San Bernardino counties it is being planted quite extensively. The 
appearance is strikingly like that of the Jonathan, but the flavor and 
quality are somewhat inferior. m 

It is too soon to predict what the future for this variety will be So 
far it has done well from the standpoint of growth of trees and pro- 
duction of fruit. 

ORTLEY. 

The Ortley or White Bellflower does remarkably well in parts of the 
foothill region. In Placer and Mariposa counties this variety has 




Fig. 9. — Well-loaded Jonathan tree near Julian, San Diego County. (Original) 

attained a high degree of excellence, and apples have been sought after 
for table use. It is an apple similar to the Yellow Bellflower, but of 
better quality. Like many of the light skinned varieties it is exceed- 
ingly delicate and susceptible to limb scars and blemishes from other 
injuries. The season is about with that of the Jonathan and the two 
varieties together on the table make a veritable bouquet. 
The trees are normally thrifty and good bearers. 



apple <;ko\yix<; in California. 



23 



ROME BEAUTY. 

The Rome Beauty is quite a general favorite for planting in certain 
sections of California, where it is known to do well. When highly 
colored it is one of our finest appearing apples. Flesh is very firm 
and of good quality. The keeping qualities are of the best, and speci- 
mens may be held over from one season to another. There are few 
apples that command a higher price than this one when in its prime. 

The trees are inclined to be somewhat small, and of upright habits 




10. — The Koine Beauty. (Original) 



of growth, unless on very favorable soils. They ionic into hearing 
early and are usually heavy and consistent producers. Because of a 
late blooming habit this variety often escapes early spring frosts that 
mean disaster to those varieties that bloom earlier. For this reason it 
is an excellent variety to plant in sections where damage frequently 
takes place from such frosts. Trees are quite susceptible to the attack 
of woolly aphis, green apple aphis and other species which affect 
apple trees. 



21 



APPLE GROWING IN CALIFORNIA. 



Some of the finest specimens of this variety that the writer has ever 
seen came from the Yucaipa section of San Bernardino County. There 
are several orchards in this section at an elevation of about five thousand 
feet where Rome Beauties are grown. Mr. Geo. Rowe of Grand Rapids, 
Michigan, who has been head judge of the California apple show each 
season since its organization, lias seen specimens of the variety from 
this section and considers them to be extra fine. Coming from an 



*<$£**■ 













rst£C . 



Fig. 11. — Young Rome Beauty tree with 
heavy load of fruit ; Yucaipa, San 
Bernardino County. (Original) 

authority on apples such as he is, this information should mean some- 
thing to the people of the Yucaipa district. 

Figure 11 is of a young Rome Beauty tree on the E. N. Boyd place 
near Yucaipa, which illustrates the heavy bearing tendency as well as 
the young age at which they come into bearing. 

No doubt there are other places in the mountain sections, away from 
the coast especially, where this variety will do well. 



APPLE GROWING IN CALIFORNIA. 



25 



RHODE ISLAND GREENING. 

This old New England variety has been found doing well in Humboldt 
County, and again in the extreme southern part of the state in San 
Diego County. The quality of this apple is good and it keeps well in 
storage. 

The trees are strong and vigorous and are seemingly productive where 
grown in the state. 

ESOPUS. ! 

This exeellent apple has not been known to reach the high degree 
of perfection in California that it does in the Northwest, although it 
does pretty well in some places. The good keeping qualities and excel- 



r 



. 











Fig. V. 



-Stayman Winesap tree bearing heavily in Tehama County. 
C. B. Weeks) 



(Photograph by 



lence in general commend it to a great many people and it finds a 
ready sale in our markets. 

In California it is generally subject to scab and aphis, the trees them- 
selves being moderately healthy. There are a few people in the state 
who will recommend it, and there may be some favorable localities where 
it will do well. 

STAYMAN WINESAP. 

The Stayman is a seedling of the old Winesap, which attains a greater 
size, but not quite such a good color. The quality is probably a little 
inferior to that of its parent. The keeping qualities of the two are 
about equal, both being in season about January first and lasting 



'Spitzenfoerg. 



26 



APPLE GROWING IN CALIFORNIA. 



through the winter. At present it is not grown extensively, but is a 
very promising variety, especially in the apple sections of San Bernar- 
dino, Tehama and Riverside counties. Figure 12 shows a tree in Tehama 
County bearing heavily. 

The trees are usually as thrifty as the regular "Winesap. It has been 
rated as a light bearer, but may not be under California conditions. 

WAGENER. 
Some splendid apples of this variety have been seen in Humboldt 
County, and the northern counties to the south, viz: Mendocino, Sonoma 




Fig. 13. — The Winter Pearmain. (Original I 

and Napa, also seem to be well adapted to its growth and development. 
At its best it is a nicely colored apple of excellent quality, and sells for 
a good price. It is rather early and does not keep well, but should 
be consumed before the holidays. 

The trees are small but heavy bearers. This variety, probably more 
than any other, has been used as a filler in orchards of other varieties. 
It is quite subject to the blight in some localities, and is not considered 
to be a long lived tree. 



APPLE GROWING IN CALIFORNIA. 
WINTER PEARMAIN. 



27 



(Fig. 13.) 

Among the list of green colored varieties there are few of better 
quality than the Winter Pearmain. This variety has been quite ex- 
tensively planted in the past in California and there are few of the 
older orchards where it can not be found. It is a good keeper and during 
the holiday season is in its prime, though it keeps well for a long time 
afterward. On some of the lighter soils quite a little color is produced, 




Fig. 14. — The Winesap. (Original) 

thus adding to its attractiveness and selling qualities. This apple, if it 
had a red skin, would be much more popular. 

The trees are exceedingly productive in this state, in some places 
bearing crops almost annually. If the soil is at all suitable good growth 
takes place, and if pruning and thinning are practiced consistently good 
fruit of uniform size and quality can be expected. 

There are few places where the writer has been that this variety has 
not been found doing well. In the mountainous sections of Madera, San 
Bernardino and San Diego counties some excellent specimens have been 
seen, and in the Pajaro and Santa Clara valleys it has been grown, not 
extensively, but always Avith uniformly good results. Consequently it is 
recommended for use in practically all the apple growing sections. 



28 APPLE GROWING IN CALIFORNIA. 

WINESAP. 

(Fig. 14.) 

One of our most cosmopolitan, as well as generally popular varieties 
of apple, is the Winesap. While it is inclined to be small the quality is 
good, the red color such as to attract attention, and the keeping qualities 
of the best. It is an excellent winter variety for general use. and when 
at its best commands a high price. There are few of the older orchards 
in California where this variety is not found, and it has been quite 
extensively planted in the foothills sections. Some remarkably tine 
specimens have been taken in the Sierra Nevada mountains at an eleva- 
tion of about five thousand feet. 

The trees are inclined to grow bushy and ordinarily require heavy 
pruning. This applies to old as well as young trees. Not only is heavy 
pruning necessary to keep the trees in good shape, but also to induce the 
apples to attain a good size. The tendency is always for them to be small 
on older trees, unless pruning is properly done. 

In the coast counties at low elevations this variety is not commonly 
planted, and is only recommended for the interior foothills and mountain 
sections. 

BANANA. 4 

The beautiful blush of this variety has made it a favorite for planting 
in sonic sections. Like the Ortley and Grimes it is rather delicate 
and must be handled with great care in picking and packing. It usually 
does best at rather high altitudes, although some beautiful specimens 
which were grown in Santa Cruz County were exhibited at the recent 
California Apple Show. Some fine fruit is produced in Modoc County. 

While a fairly good keeper ordinarily, it is at its best rather early in 
the season. 

The trees are vigorous when young, at least, but are inclined to be 
rather stunted later, unless grown under the most favorable conditions. 

YELLOW BELLFLOWER. 

(Fig. 15.) 

Probably nowhere else has the above variety been grown so extensively 
and reached such perfection as in the Pajaro Valley of this state, or what 
is better known as the Watsonville section, which includes parts of Santa 
Cruz and Monterey counties. The difficulty experienced in getting red 
varieties to color well in this section is no doubt responsible for the 
extensive planting to this variety and also the commonly grown Yellow 
Newtown, another light colored apple. When grown on favorable .soil 
and when not picked too early it develops a blush that makes it very 
attractive. It keeps well until after the holidays and is a general 
favorite in California for the early market. 

The trees grow very large and sturdy and in California bear quite 
regularly and their size after they reach the age of fifteen years or more, 
makes it possible for them to bear some very large crops. In most parts 
of the country it is rated as a light bearer. 

•Winter Banana. 



APPLE GROWING IN CAUKOKXJA. 



20 



This variety is recommended for planting in most of the apple grow- 
ing sections of the state, as il may be found doing well at high elevations, 
as well as places near sea level. Because of the fact that Watsonville 
has made a specialty of this variety it would probably not he good busi- 
ness judgment for other sections to plant it extensively, but it would be 
better for them to choose some variety known to do well under their 
conditions. 




Fig. 15. — The Yellow Bellflower. (Original) 

YELLOW NEWTOWN. 

(Fig. 16.) 

Like the Yellow Bellflower this variety is exceptionally well adapted 
to the conditions of soil and climate of the Pajaro Valley, and there 
reaches a high degree of perfection. These two varieties constitute by 
far the greater part of the acreage (about eighty per cent) planted to 
apples in that section. The Yellow Newtown ripens a little later than 
the Yellow Bellflower, is firmer and a better keeper. It is quite a 



30 



APPLE GROWING IN CALIFORNIA. 



popular variety for the export trade as well as for general use. In 
California it is quite subject to mildew and scab and these diseases often 
play havoc with the trees and fruit where nothing is done to control 
them. Bearing begins reasonably early and good crops are the rule 
in the state. 

The trees are quite large and thrifty but do not usually attain the 
size of the Yellow Bellflower. 

There are few localities where this variety does not do well, and like 
the Yellow Bellflower it is recommended for planting in all apple sec- 




Fig. 16. — The Yellow Newtown. (Original) 

tions of the state where a good light colored apple is desired. In 
Humboldt and Lassen counties in the north and in San Diego, Riverside 
and San Bernardino counties in the south fine specimens have been 
collected. 

The trees will stand very heavy pruning, which becomes a necessity 
in sections where mildew is bad, as one of the best ways to control this 
disease is by pruning out infested twigs as they appear. 



APPLE GROWING IX CALIFORNIA. 31 



CHAPTER HI. 

PROPAGATION OF THE APPLE. 

The work of propagating apple trees is usually left to the nursery- 
man, although there is no good reason why the person who is contem- 
plating the setting out of an orchard should not propagate his own trees. 
In the past there lias been frequent and serious difficulty experienced 
by the purchaser of nursery trees because of not receiving varieties 
ordered. The nurserymen of today, as a whole, exercise the greatesl 
care toward sending out trees true to name, so the one-time serious 
objection to buying trees from them has been largely removed. It is 
true, however, that many nurserymen are not careful enough in the 
selection of the stock used for budding or grafting purposes, and as a 
consequence trees may not be inherently strong. The future will no 
doubt demand that more care be exercised to secure buds or grafts from 
trees that have a record of good crop production to transmit, or at 
least which they will surely have a tendency to transmit to trees 
developed from them. 

SEEDLINGS. 

It is known by practically every one that the apple, when grown from 
seed, does not come true to the variety. That is, if a thousand trees were 
grown from seeds taken from a single Jonathan apple tree there would 
probably be none of them that would possess many of the character- 
istics of the true Jonathan. This fact necessitates the propagation of 
the apple by budding or grafting of fixed varieties into seedlings grown 
for the purpose. The first step, then, in developing trees for an orchard 
is the growing of seedlings. 

Wickson recommends the following method of starting apple and pear 
trees from seed : 

For a small lot of apple and pear trees the seed can be best sown in boxes. 
Select plump pips and keep in moist sand from the time they are taken from the 
fruit until sowing. Fill the boxes, which should be three or four inches deep, with 
good garden mold, cover the seed about half an inch, and then cover the soil lightly 
with chaff <>r fine straw to prevent the surface from drying out, Re sure that the 
boxes have cracks or holes in the bottom for drainage, and the whole is kept moist. 
but not wet. When the seedlings have grown to the height of three inches they 
can be set out in the nursery rows, as one would set out cabbage plants. 

After these seedling trees have attained sufficient growth they may be 
budded to whatever varieties are desired. 

Seeds for use in growing trees should be selected from good stock, if 
possible. Small, shrunken seed from poor apples is no more desirable 
than poor stock for budding purposes, as the thriftiness of the seedling 
tree will very largely determine the development and growth of the bud 
or graft that is inserted into it. Seeds are usually obtained from the 
pomace of cider mills. As such seeds from our American mills ordi- 
narily possess nothing of uniformity in their makeup, a good stand of 
thrifty seedlings can scarcely be expected when grown from them. The 
best seedlings are those grown from the wild crabs of France, and most 



32 



APPLE GROWING IN CALIFORNIA. 



of our nurserymen make a practice of buying either seedlings or seed 
from this French stock, which appears to have little value except for 
cider and seeds. 

BUDDING. 

The budded apple tree is now generally preferred to the root grafted 
tree. The operation of budding is really more simple than grafting, 
the union of bud with stock is usually better than in the case of the 
graft, and the trees are believed to be less liable to attack by crown gall. 
For these as well as other reasons propagation by budding is prac- 
ticed by most of our best nurserymen. 

Budding can best be done in California in August and September, 
in which case the inserted bud unites with the seedling stem and remains 






"Preparing the stock to receive the bud." (After Lelong) 



dormant throughout the winter season, making no growth until the 
spring. At this time the top of the tree should be removed, cutting just 
above the bud. The well established root system of the seedling will 
feed the new bud abundantly, and a rapid growth should take place, 
developing a satisfactory size of top for planting in one season. 

Bud wood should be selected from bearing trees which have produced 
satisfactory crops, and only strong, healthy buds should be used. The 
practice of using bud sticks from young trees which have never borne, 
because of the convenience of securing them at the time of pruning, 
cannot result in the development of the best kind of nursery stock. In 
practically every orchard there are certain trees that have produced 
big crops of fruit year after year with scarcely, a failure, while the 
average trees have not done nearly so well. Such heavy producing 



Apple growing en California. 



:;:; 




Fig. 18. — "Cutting the buds from the scion. 
(After Lelong) 





Pig. 19. — "Showing bud inserted and the wrappings. In some cases a few limbs are 
left to promote vigor." (After Lelong) 



3—13683 



34 APPLE GROWING IN CALIFORNIA. 

trees, other characteristics being desirable also, should be the ones from 
which buds are taken. The orchardist usually has a better chance to 
utilize such trees than the nurseryman. The limited number of trees 
that he would need for his own use often makes it possible for him to 
secure bud wood from only one tree, which possesses more desirable 
characteristics of its kind than any other with which he is familiar. The 
wide breach between the quantity of fruit represented by the maximum 
producing trees of an orchard and the minimum, or even average pro- 
ducers, can never be greatly lessened until more careful attention is 
given to the selection of buds for propagating purposes. 

The budding operation is quite simple and is well illustrated in Figs. 
17, 18 and 19, after Lelong. These illustrations were made for use in 
a citrus publication, but as the operation with apples is similar, they 
serve the purpose in this book equally as well. 

In the nursery an expert budder merely inserts the buds, the tying 
being done by some one else who immediately follows him. Either 
cotton twine or fibre from palm leaves, known as raffia, is used for 
holding the buds in place. As much care, if not more, is necessary in 
the tying of the bud as in placing it beneath the bark. The tying should 
be tightly done, thus binding the bud firmly to the stem and greatly 
facilitating its starting. 

ROOT-GRAFTING. 

This operation is accomplished by the use of seedling roots, whole or 
in part, to which bud wood of the desired variety is united. In the past 
this has been a very popular method of propagating nursery apple trees, 
but has been very largely superseded by budding, for reasons already 
given. Such grafts are usually made during the dormant season, and 
kept in wet sand or other suitable material until setting time in the 
spring. 



APPLE GROWING IN CALIFORNIA. 35 

CHAPTER IV. 

SELECTION OF TREES FOR PLANTING. 

Which varieties are selected should depend, first, upon their adap- 
tation to the conditions existing- where they are to be planted, and, 
secondly, upon whether they are to be used for commercial purposes or 
for a home orchard. If the orchard is planted for commercial reasons — 
and that is really all that need concern us in this article — only a very 
few varieties should be secured. What these shall be should be deter- 
mined by careful observations of profitable trees in nearby orchards 
in a section, if older orchards can be found where information is easily 
obtainable ; if not, similar conditions elsewhere may serve as a guide, 
but in this case the value of whatever varieties are planted will have 
to be largely determined by experiment. Every older apple section 
has passed through this experimental period, and, as a consequence, we 
find in our state many old orchards of a miscellaneous lot of varieties, 
some good and some bad. Such orchards very often do not have enough 
good trees in them to justify their existence on the ground they occupy. 
It is always a good plan to go slow with the testing out of new varieties. 
The nursery agent who understands his business as a salesman very 
often has no trouble in persuading people to buy varieties that, while 
they may be good, have never been tried out in the section, and should 
not form the major part of a new orchard. To test them out in a small 
way by planting only a few, until they are known to do well, is a com- 
mendable thing. Practically every apple section of any consequence in 
California has growing in it some well adapted varieties that have pro- 
duced fine crops year after year. A few of such varieties, preferably 
not more than three, should be selected by the prospective grower. Suc- 
cess will come to a section when it can produce, in quantities, some 
variety or some few varieties of prime fruit better than any other sec- 
tion can produce them. An illustration of this may be found in the fine 
Gravensteins of the Sebastopol section of Sonoma County, or the Yellow 
Bellflowers or Yellow Newtowns of the Watsonville section of Santa 
Cruz County. With a miscellaneous lot of varieties, and no great quan- 
tity of any one, these famous apple regions would never have gained 
their reputation. In the mountainous parts of the state, especially that 
portion occupied by the Sierra Nevada range, may be found a great 
many other equally good varieties, such as Jonathan, Rome Beauty, 
Esopus, Winesap, Delicious, Winter Pearmain, Baldwin, Northern Spy, 
Maiden Blush and Ortley, any one of which, if grown extensively and 
handled well, should make a reputation for its section, as the previously 
mentioned varieties have done for Sebastopol and Watsonville. 

Some varieties are more or less self-sterile, and unless interplanted 
with other varieties as pollinizers they may fail to produce well, if at all. 
With the limited amount of scientifically accurate work that has been 
done along this line, it is impossible to say just which varieties are self- 
fertile and will do well when planted alone. It is safe to say that large 
blocks of any variety should not be planted, for even though they may 
be self-fertile the effect of cross-pollination would undoubtedly be good. 



36 



APPLE GROWING IN CALIFORNIA. 



The following table, prepared and published by Frederick Maskew, 5 
shows the wide variation in time of blooming of a number of different 
varieties, something which should be taken into consideration when 
selecting two or more with the idea of getting the best results in cross- 
pollination. 



Winter Peannain April 

Red Aatrachan April 

Yellow Bellflower April 

Fall Pippin April 

Rhode Island Greening April 

Kentucky Red Streak April 

Early Harvest April 

Shockley April 

Fameuse April 

Ben Davis April 

Winesap ; May 

Yellow Transparent | May 

None-such -.- ! May 

Missouri Pippin ! May 

Alexander May 

Smith May 

Transcendent Crabs May 

Hyslop Crabs April 

Montreal Crabs ; April 



ntii 

17th 
20th 
20th 
20th 
20th 
21st 
27th 
27th 
29th 
5th 
5th 
7th 
10th 
L5th 
15th 
30th 
11th 
16th 



April 27th 
April 30th 
April 30th 
May 5th 
May 5th 
May 10th 
May 6th 
May 15th 
May 15th 
May 15th 
May 17th 
May 16th 
May 16th 
May 20th 
May 25th 
May 25th 
April 7th 
April 22d 
April 24th 



(general fall 
of bloom 



May 5th 
May 12th 
May 16th 
May 15th 
May 15th 
May 20th 
May 12th 
May 20th 
May 22d 
May 23d 
June 1st 
June 1st 
June 1st 
June 1st 
June 1st 
June 6th 
April 22d 
April 30th 
May 7 th 



DEMAND THE BEST. 

Having selected suitable varieties only the best trees should be con- 
sidered for planting. Generally speaking, a cheap tree is a poor tree. In 
any nursery there are a certain number of trees which have never made a 
good growth and which on being dug are sorted out as low grade trees 
and sold for a lower figure than those which have been thrifty. Fre- 
quently these stunted trees never develop into first-class trees, no matter 
how great care they may receive. Trees possess an individuality which 
must be taken into consideration. Often being grown from buds selected 
miscellaneously, it is to be expected that there will be considerable varia- 
tion in their size, hardiness and habits of growth. While it may be 
possible to build a fairly good tree from one which possesses many 
undesirable characteristics, yet it is much safer to choose the very best, 
which are likely to be inherently strong, and which will consequently 
respond readily to good treatment. 

AGE OF TREE TO PLANT. 

All things considered, the best apple tree to buy is the one year old 
whip. Such a tree has a three year old root system — two years' growth 
as a seedling, and the third as a budded tree. Thus the top is only 
one year of age when the roots are three, and all the plant food which 
they take up is utilized in developing this one year old top, which 
normally makes a thrifty and healthy growth with little or no branching. 
When set, trees of this kind should throw out branches in abundance 
throughout the entire length of the trunk, a very desirable thing, as a 
certain type of head being wanted there will be no trouble in selecting 
branches to conform to that type, and uniformity may be attained in the 

5 Apple culture in Los Angeles County. 



APPLE GROWING IN CALIFORNIA. 37 

heading of an orchard. In the ease of the two year old tree it is usually 
headed a certain height in the nursery row, generally higher than is 
desirable for the orchard tree, and uniformity of heading is exceedingly 
diffieult to secure. Sometimes such trees when set are denuded of 
branches, a mere whip being left, but when this is done they do not 
make as much lateral growth as the one year old tree, and it may be 
very difficult to select branches of the right height and properly spaced 
for the best type of head. 

FREEDOM FROM DISEASE AND INSECT PESTS. 

Thanks to the very careful inspection work in California, under the 
direction of the county horticultural commissioners, trees are usually 
quite free from recognizable diseases and insect pests, when they are set. 
Trees infested with such diseases as crown gall and such insect pests 
as woolly aphis are seldom planted. Our inspection system, while 
far from being perfect, has not only been successful in the detection 
of disease and insect pests, but it has also resulted in greater care 
being exercised by the grower of nursery trees, that they be clean. It is 
not always possible for the inspector to detect crown gall in its first 
stages, but the fact that he is always looking for it and destroying trees 
upon -which it is found, has made the nurseryman realize his obligation 
relative to this trouble, and as a consequence trees are not grown on land 
after it becomes thoroughly infected with the disease, as they were at one 
time. This illustration is one of many which might be given to show 
that the tendency nowadays is toward better stock, as far as insect 
pests and diseases are concerned. It is of the utmost importance for 
new sections to plant clean trees, as by so doing many years may elapse 
before some of the very common troubles will find their way into 
orchards of the section. 

The very great distribution of the woolly aphis is no doubt due largely 
to the fact that it has been planted with the nursery tree. With our 
modern methods of inspection and fumigation the chances of living 
aphids being on the roots when trees are set may and should be reduced 
to the minimum. Preventive measures of a simple nature may mean 
freedom from such pests for years, and consequent healthiness of trees, 
while inattention to such may mean large sums of money and much time 
expended in spraying, etc., with the result of possible control by a 
diminution of the pest, but never eradication. 

The inspection work to secure this freedom from insects and disease 
should receive the encouragement of every one interested in fruit grow- 
ing, not merely because the inspector may be able to detect pests, but 
also because of the fact that his efforts will mean a greater effort on 
the part of the nurseryman, which, after all, means more than the 
inspection after the stock is grown. There are places, to the writer's 
knowledge, where inspection work is not done, which have been made 
dumping grounds by unreliable nurserymen for their undesirable stock- 



38 APPLE GROWING IN CALIFORNIA. 



CHAPTER V. 



SOILS AND THEIR PREPARATION FOR PLANTING. 

Apple trees require good, deep, well drained soils, preferably of a 
somewhat light clayey loam. No definite rule can be laid down as to 
the particular kind of soil for them. Many splendid orchards may be 
found growing on light, sandy river bottom soils, while others have done 
equally as well on quite heavy clay, even of the type which we speak of 
as adobe. Generally speaking, however, the very heavy and very light 
soils should be avoided. In California the brown or red mesa soils of 
the foothill sections along the Sierras, where they possess sufficient 
depth, grow fine trees. Back in the mountains proper, at high altitudes 
may be found a black loam, very moist and full of humus, which is 
admirably adapted to the growth of apples. The coast section, includ- 
ing Santa Cruz and Sonoma counties, has a variety of soils, ranging 
from light sand to stiff clay, and a number of types are known to pro- 
duce excellent trees and fruit. Poor soils of any kind are not good for 
apples, and trees should never be set out on land which is too poor for 
other crops. Hardpan lands should be avoided. A layer of gypsum, 
marl, or heavy clay within three feet of the surface is not desirable: 
neither should soils be chosen where water stands within three feet of 
the surface at any time during the season. In such cases alkalies are 
very apt to become bad. While trees may grow fairly well for a number 
of years with hardpan or water close to the surface, sooner or later they 
are sure to show signs of trouble. This may manifest itself as small, 
yellow, sickly foliage, sparse growth, or as a mass of foliage toward tips 
of twigs, or some other condition indicating starvation. The healthiest 
trees, generally speaking, are those which root the deepest, and all con- 
ditions unfavorable to deep rooting should be avoided as much as 
possible. 

Varieties developed to perfection on a certain type of soil would 
naturally be expected to do best on similar soils elsewhere. This is a 
phase of the question that has not been given much attention in the 
past, but one which no doubt will receive more consideration in the 
future. Prof. J. W. Nelson of the University of California, in an 
address before the State Fruit Growers' Convention at Davis, in June, 
1914, on the "Fruit Soils of the Great Interior Valley," touched upon 
this subject and gave some striking illustrations of the truth that 
varieties do best on similar soils in different sections and made the fol- 
lowing statement : "In our studies in this state, and elsewhere in the 
United States, we have observed that each kind of fruit, like other crops, 
has a soil and climatic environment in which it reaches its greatest per- 
fection, and when grown on a type differing greatly from that to which 
the variety had adjusted its functions of growth, failure frequently 
results and one or more of the essential qualities is missing or is replaced 
by other inferior or superior ones. So if we have a desirable variety, 
possessing qualities which we wish to retain, we must grow the variety 
in a soil and climate like or nearly like those in which it obtained its 



APPLE GROWING IN CALIFORNIA. 39 

desirable qualities. ' ' This is illustrated nicely by Mr. Nelson, in the case 
of certain varieties of strawberries grown in Delaware, in the following 
words : 

"Two soil types were present, namely: the Norfolk sandy loam and 
the Portsmouth sandy loam. The former is a well drained brown soil, 
moderate to low in humus, quickly warmed up in springtime, and 
occupies a position from one to several feet higher than the latter. The 
Portsmouth sandy loam is a low, damp, cool, black soil, very high in 
humus. The Gaudy berry thrives and develops unusually desirable 
qualities on this soil, but becomes a miserable failure on the Norfolk 
soil. The Parson's Beauty, Chesapeake, and one or two other varieties 
reach great perfection on the well drained, warm, moderately fertile 
Norfolk soil, but fail on the low, damp, cool Portsmouth type. 

' ' Farmers did not know the cause for this and kept on trying to grow 
the Gandy, a most attractive market variety, on the Norfolk sandy loam 
and thousands of dollars were lost every year for years in this attempt 
alone. After a careful observation of the soils present it was decided to 
trace out the origin of the Gandy variety and see, if possible, why it was 
so partial to a certain kind of soil and so sensitive to others. After some 
time the variety was traced to New Jersey, and it was discovered that 
the first seedling had originated on the same type of soil on which it was 
thriving in Delaware." 

This striking illustration will no doubt apply to apples equally as 
well as to strawberries. 

PREVIOUS CROPPING. 

Many fine orchards are growing on soil which was virgin at the time 
they were planted. It is equally true that many failures may be traced 
to lack of preparation of the soil for trees. It is safe to say that 
cropping previous to setting trees in order to better prepare the ground 
is always best. There is no better crop to grow previous to planting 
trees than alfalfa. Our arid, western soils are usually low in nitrogen, 
which may be supplied in abundance by alfalfa. This crop, because of 
its root system, prepares the soil for tree roots better, probably, than 
anything else that can be grown. Trees set on alfalfa ground usually 
make a very quick and healthy growth. The writer has sometimes 
advised the cropping of land in alfalfa for a couple of years before 
planting apples, rather than gain two years in the growth of trees by 
putting out the orchard at once. The gain in time may be completely 
compensated for in a few years by the extra growth and productiveness 
of the trees following alfalfa, Other legumes, e. g., peas, beans, vetches 
and the clovers may be used to advantage in preparing the soil for trees, 
but none of these possess the merits of the deeply rooted alfalfa, 

LEVELING. 

Many an orchardist has experienced much difficulty in irrigating his 
orchard, because of inattention to leveling the land before the trees 
were planted. A scraper is very often necessary for use in cutting 
down high places and filling in low. When the land has been made 
approximately level by the use of the scraper, it should be dragged or 
leveled by means of a common frame, field drag or some other suitable 



40 APPLE GROWING IN CALIFORNIA. 

implement made for the purpose. After the leveling is done harrowing 
to break up all clods should not be neglected. Moisture may be con- 
served much better if a fine dust mulch can be made on the surface of 
the soil, and a disc harrow, cultivator, common harrow or any other im- 
plement which will best make the mulch should be used. It should be 
remembered that a smooth surface such as might be secured by rolling 
the soil will lose moisture much more quickly than a surface broken 
up by the harrow or other cultivating tool. 

PLOWING. 

It seems hardly necessary to say that ground should always be well 
plowed before trees are set out, for nearly every one realizes the import- 
ance of this operation. It has already been said that a deep root system 
is advantageous, and for this reason, if for no other, soil should be 
plowed deeply to better insure such deep rooting. Not only should this 
deep plowing be practiced previous to setting the trees, but frequently 
afterwards. In general it may be said that an orchard should be 
plowed once a year and always to a good depth, so that the soil may be 
loosened sufficiently to induce deep rooting of the trees. Plowing in 
preparation for planting is often very carelessly done because of the 
fact that holes of a considerable size and depth are dug for the trees and 
it is not considered that careful plowing is necessary. In our arid 
sections where the rainfall is light — where there may be little or no 
water for irrigation during the dry season and as a consequence it is 
necessary to conserve all the moisture possible — the plowing operation 
should never be slighted in any way. 

HOW TO DETERMINE NUMBERS OF TREES PER ACRE. 

Any one desiring to find out how many trees can be planted per acre, 
at given distances apart, can do so by multiplying these distances in feet 
and dividing 43,560, which is the number of square feet in an acre by 
the product. For example, it is desired to plant an orchard on the 
square 30 by 30 feet ; the product of these two distances is 900, and 
43,560 divided by 900 equals 48, the number of trees that can be planted 
per acre at this distance. If the hexagonal system of planting is to be 
used the number may be determined by adding to this number fifteen 
per cent of itself. For example, 48 times .15 equals 7 plus, which added 
to 48 equals 55 plus. Similarly any other distances being known the 
number of trees per acre may be determined. 

SYSTEMS FOR PLANTING. 

The different systems for planting trees are well illustrated in the 
accompanying figures, numbers 20, 21, 22 and 23. There are four of 
them in all, and they are known as the square, triangular, quincunx and 
hexagonal methods. The first and last are generally used, the hex- 
agonal having the advantage of allowing fifteen per cent more trees in 
a given area. A very common fault in the planting of our older apple 
orchards was the setting of too many trees per acre. Crowding, after 
a few years' growth, has as a consequence taken place, to the serious 
detriment of the crop and to the disadvantage of cultivation, picking 
and other orchard operations. Most varieties of. apples should be 



APPLE GROWING IN CALIFORN] \. 



41 





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Fig. 20. — "The square system." 
(After Lelong) 



Fig. 21. — "The triangular or alternating 
system." (After Lelong) 



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Fig. 22. — "The quincunx system," 
(.After Lelong) 



Fig. 23. — "The hexagonal system." 
(After Lelong) 



42 



APPLE GROWING IN CALIFORNIA. 



planted about thirty feet apart. This distance gives ample room for 
all the work that must necessarily be done in the orchard, and if prun- 
ing is properly done there should never be any serious trouble from 
crowding. Fig. 24 is a young apple orchard at Tehachapi planted 
30 x 30 square system, which has been well laid out. By setting this 
distance apart there would be forty-eight trees to the acre. If the 
hexagonal system were used there would be fifteen per cent more trees, 
or fifty-five to the acre, with no two trees closer together than thirty 
feet in this case, the distance between the rows being only twenty- 
six feet. This method of setting is quite popular because of the extra 
number of trees that can be planted without crowding. It possesses 
the disadvantage of leaving less room between the rows for cultivating 
and hauling fruit. 

DIGGING HOLES. 

1 1 olt's should be large enough so that roots may be set with their 
natural spread and not crowded and twisted together into a small 




apple orchard at Teh 



api. (Original) 



space. Sometimes the difficulty of digging holes is responsible for such 
a condition of crowding, but trees had better not be set unless the root 
system can have a fair show from the start. The soil at the bottom of 
the holes should be loosened to a considerable depth to facilitate deep 
rooting, and to enable the root system, which is always more or less dam- 
aged when taken from the nursery, to get a new start quickly. 

It is now quite a general practice to use dynamite in loosening the soil, 
especially where hardpan exists. There is often much to be gained by 
its use, but care should be exercised to avoid packing and the consequent 
defeat of the object for which it was employed. Dynamiting should only 
be done, in heavy soils with a tendency to run together, at least, when 
they are dry. If moist there may be a packing or cementing, which is 



APPLE GROWING IN CALIFORNIA. 43 

decidedly bad. The post bar and shovel may do the work as well as 
dynamite and are safer if the soil is wet. 

LAYING OUT LAND. 

The establishment of points for the setting- of trees may be con- 
veniently done with a surveyor's level or transit. If such instru- 
ments are not available accurate results may be attained by sighting to 
stakes with the eye. Difficulty sometimes arises because of irregularly 
shaped tracts, but in such cases it is only necessary to establish straight 
lines as guides in laying out the main tract and filling in angular pieces 
afterwards. By establishing such lines a rectangular tract may be laid 
off, the boundaries of opposite sides being marked by stakes of a con- 
venient size and color so that they may be easily seen, and defining 
accurately the distance between the trees or rows. A line of stakes set 
the same distance apart should be run parallel to one of these boundary 
lines somewhere near the middle of the field. These three being deter- 
mined, points in between to locate position of trees can be accurately 
placed also, and by sighting in two directions at right angles to each 
other, there should be little chance of serious errors in alignment. If, 
instead of the square method of planting, the hexagonal is to be used, it 
would be necessary to establish twice as many points on the boundary 
and in the line parallel to same to determine the position of the trees in 
alternate rows. 



44 



APPLE GROWING IN CALIFORNIA. 



CHAPTER VI. 



SETTING AND CARING FOR THE YOUNG TREES. 

The tract of land to be planted being laid out with stakes to mark 
the position of each tree, it is next necessary to have some way of 
determining the position of a tree where the stake stood after its 

removal in the digging of 
the hole. A simple but 
satisfactory apparatus for 
doing this is shown in 
Fig. 25. 

This is placed against 
the stake at the point a, 
pins are then driven 
through the holes at h and 
h 1 , thus securely fastening 
the frame to the ground. 
The portion in front of 
hinges is now thrown back 
and the hole dug. After- 
wards the front and main 
portion of the frame is 
again moved forward over 
the hole and the tree placed 
in the crotch at point a, 
which corresponds exactly to the place where stake originally stood. 
With such an apparatus great accuracy may be attained. The hinges 
shown in figure are not a necessity as such an apparatus may be made 
without, but is less convenient as it must be removed from stakes en- 
tirely, while holes are being dug. A straight piece of board with notch 
in center and holes or notches at each end for the stakes is frequently 
used. 




-A simple apparatus used in setting 
trees. (Original) 



DEPTH TO PLANT. 

The rule is to plant trees in the orchard slightly deeper than they 
grew in the nursery, or in other words, the bud union should be at the 
surface of the ground when the tree is set. The depth of planting may 
be varied slightly without any apparent detriment to the growth of 
the trees, but all things being considered there is probably no better 
depth than is indicated by the bud union at the ground line, and care 
must be taken not to plant too deep as such may result in the death of 
the trees. 



FILLING IN THE HOLE. 
The tree being placed in the hole at the proper depth, and the roots 
being spread naturally, the soil is now carefully packed about them. 
The entire space about the crown should be closely filled with soil, 
and the careful planter will use his hands in doing this work. After 
the roots have been properly cared for, the shovel is used to fill in the 



iPPLE GROWING IN CALIFORNIA. 



45 



resi of the hole. It is always well to pour a bucket of water into the 
hole before it has been entirely filled, so that the tree may have plenty 
of moisture and also that the soil may be better packed ahout the roots. 
After watering, the hole should be filled in completely. 

IRRIGATING THE YOUNG ORCHARD. 

The first one or two irrigations after planting may be done in fur- 
rows made previously, and in which trees have been set. While this 
method insures an abundance of water at the start, it may result in 
damage because of the baking of the soil about the trees and should 
not be continued for any length of time after the trees are set. It is 
much better as a general rule to irrigate by means of smaller furrows 
on either side of the rows, containing small heads of water run long 
enough to thoroughly saturate the soil surrounding the trees. The 
tendency to bake will not be nearly so great as when the ground is 
actually flooded. As soon as possible after irrigation, the cultivator, 
spring tooth harrow, disc harrow, or other suitable implement should 
be used, so that the moisture may be better conserved and so that all 
tendency of the soil toward baking, may be eliminated. In sections 
where irrigation is not practiced the cultivation recommended to follow 
irrigation, should be conscientiously done to conserve the moisture so 
necessary for the proper growth and development of the trees. 

PROTECTORS FOR YOUNG TREES. 

Young trees are always liable to attack by rabbits and other rodents. 
and are also subject to sun scald during the summer season. As a protec- 
tion against both the rodents and sun scald various shields are placed 
about the trunks. Sometimes a cylinder of heavy paper is used, some- 
times wire screening, probably best of all are wooden protectors made 
very thin from some pliable wood. These should be left the natural 
color and never painted black as sun scald may be worse if black pro- 
tectors are used than with none at all. A common lime whitewash is a 
splendid sun scald preventive. 



46 APPLE GROWING IN CALIFORNIA. 



CHAPTER VII. 



PRUNING. 

CUTTING BACK THE YOUNG TREE WHEN SET. 

It has already been said that a one-year-old whip is the best tree to 
plant. Such should be cut back when planted, because of the damage 
which has resulted to the root system in digging and the consequent 
disturbance of the balance between root system and top. The root 
hairs, the function of which is to take up the plant food in solution 
from the soil, have been practically all destroyed, and new ones must 
be formed before the tree can be supplied by the roots. It is conse- 
quently dependent, in starting at first, principally upon the stored-up 
plant food in the top and must grow for a short time, at least, almost 
independently of root action. This being the case, the less top that 
there is the better chance will the root system have to make a rapid 
recovery and renewal of root hairs. The height at which this one-year- 
old tree should be left will depend upon the distance from the ground 
that it is desired to make the head. The tendency now is to head trees 
as low as possible, and still not interfere with cultivation of the orchard. 
The writer can see no good reason for heading apple trees more than 
twenty inches above the surface of the ground. This gives enough 
trunk for a beautiful, shapely tree, and if later pruning is properly 
done there will be no trouble about cultivation. As the first pruning 
may largely determine the height of head, a short discussion on the 
advantages of a low-headed tree will not be out of place here. 

LOW HEADING. 

In California, as well as practically every place where apples are 
grown, there are times when the sun is very hot and sun scald of the 
bark may take place to the great detriment of the trees. Such injury 
makes a favorite place for the flat-headed or so-called sun-borers to 
gain entrance and do their work of destruction. Knowing this, is there 
any good reason for leaving a great high trunk, very often unprotected 
in any way, exposed to the action of the sun? The destruction wrought 
by sun scald and its attendant borers in California is so great that low 
heading of trees can not be too strongly recommended. 

Most of our orchards are set out for commercial purposes and it is 
expected that the income from them will be a good one. As in every 
other business, it is necessary to keep down expenses to the minimum in 
order to make good profits. The cost of picking fruit is greatly 
increased when it is necessary to climb tall ladders to get it. 

A certain height of head having been decided upon at planting time, 
— we will say twenty inches for the purpose of illustration, as well as 



Al'l'LK GROWING IN CALIFORNIA. 



47 



because it is believed that this is about the right height — it is obvious 
thai all branches which form the scaffold or framework of the tree. 

should not emanate from 
about the same point in the 
trunk, because of crowding 
and consequent weakening 
of the framework. There 
should be at least from ten 
inches to one foot allowed for 
spacing these branches for 
the very best results. If then 
we desire to have our apple 
trees headed within twenty 
inches of the ground the 
newly set tree should be cut 
back to a height of thirty or 
thirty-two inches. The cur- 
rent season 's growth will be in 
the form of many laterals 
from this thirty inches or 
more of trunk, and if every- 
thing is favorable they should 
develop almost throughout its 
entire length. See Fig. 26. 
The practice of rubbing off 
shoots low down on the trunk 
is very often followed dur- 
ing the first summer. It is 
doubtful if it pays to do this as the tree needs lots of foliage for its 
best development, and the chances of sun scald and its attendant evils 
are also increased by this practice. Moderate summer pruning may. 
however, be done, and the second season there should be plenty of 
branches to choose from in forming the framework. 




Fig. 



!6. — A tree cut back to thirty inches in 
height when set. (Original) 



SELECTING THE FRAMEWORK BRANCHES THE SECOND SEASON. 

Only a glance is necessary in practically any of the older orchards, 
when it will be seen that very little attention has been paid in the past 
to the careful selection of a proper number of branches rightly spaced. 
Such trees as the one shown in Figs. 27 and 28 are not at all uncommon. 
This type of head is decidedly bad and has no place in the recently 
planted orchards. A great number of weak crotches are inevitable in 
such cases as this ; no larger head can be formed than on a lesser num- 
ber, and it will not be nearly so thrifty, but worst of all, the time will 
surely come when, because of accident or otherwise, it will be necessary 
to prune out some of the large limbs from the framework. The close 
quarters for pruning will not permit of doing the same with ease, and 
as a consequence large stubs will be left which always mean disaster to 
an apple tree. The ends will not heal over, rot fungi will get in their 
work, borers and termites find conditions favorable, and what might 
have been a long-lived tree is doomed after only a few short years of 
productivity. 



^^•^Igjl 


WA^Tgij 
















w 


^■■4gP5H| 







Fig. 27. — An apple tree started with too many framework branches. (Original) 




Fig. 28. — The same tree as the one shown in Fig. 27, illustrating the willow- 
like growth of the top. (Original) 



APPLE GROWING IN CALIFORNIA. 



49 



From three to five branches are plenty, when carefully selected in 
regard to spacing and balancing the head, for any apple tree. Many 
prefer three because of the fact that just as large a head can be formed 
upon them as on five, and there will not be so much chance for crowding. 
Again, the lesser number is desirable because of the extra size they will 
attain and the consequent ability to hold up greater loads of fruit. 
Occasionally four or five are left rather than three because of the lia- 
bility of breaking off branches in cultivating, etc. If one out of three 
scaffold branches is broken the head is very apt to be unbalanced 
and difficulty may be experienced in getting it shaped up well after- 
ward, where if there were four or five and one should get broken the 
chances would be more favorable. 




Fig. 29. — Old apple orchard started with only three scaffold branches. (Original) 

Fig. 29 shows one of the oldest orchards the writer has seen, which 
was started with three scaffold branches. While the spacing of these 
was faulty in this case, the trees are much better than they would have 
been had more branches been left. Fig. 30 shows an apple tree after 
the second year's pruning, which has been well headed and which has 
only three branches left to form the framework. Fig. 31 shows another 
well-headed tree of the same age, in which five have been left instead 
of three. Either tree will make a good growth, but the former will 
develop the stockiest branches and should be a little better tree at the 
end of the growing season. The branches selected for the framework 
should not be left in their entirety, but should be cut back as shown in 
Figs. 30 and 31. If they are left without cutting back, slender willowy 
growths will probably be the result. If cut back to lengths of twelve 
to fourteen inches a heavier growth and a greater increase in the 



4—13683 



50 



APPLE GROWING IN CALIFORNIA. 



'm * v r,J * v*^''"' 1 '"'!£& 




■•■■' -^W ; -- A ~ ^""V' "* ' - 
'??•>■- ■-.'■, '■ ±~ ': '—.j 

■ *C.W - . - - -- -X*r 

v*- — -.> — •>■ 



Fig. 30. — Young apple tree after the second season's 
pruning, showing a head started with three scaffold 
branches. (Original) 




-V 






-W?^£2 



*-~ ..-■» ** ~ f - .■*- -• • 






& >> 



Fig. 31. — Young apple tree after the second season's 
pruning, showing a head started with five scaffold 
branches. (Original) 



APPLE GROWING IN CALIFORNIA. 






4«nam-^ 












Fig. 32. — Young Winesap tree in foreground which has been heavily pruned, photo- 
graphed at beginning of third season. 







Pig. 33. — Same tree shown in Fig. 32, after season's growth. 



52 APPLE GROWING IN CALIFORNIA. 

diameter of the twigs will take place. The value of this heavy cutting 
back is well illustrated iu Figs. 32 and 33 which show the same tree. 
The first picture was taken early in the spring and the second on 
September 21st. 

In the case of most varieties of trees, at least, it is best to cut to 
outside buds when the second season's pruning is done, in order to 
spread the head. The amount of spread will, however, depend largely 
on the variety, and whether outside or inside buds are left at the ter- 
minals of the twigs will depend upon this varietal factor. For instance, 
the Winesap has a great tendency to spread and grow bushy, and in 
order to make it grow upright, or at least to increase that tendency, 
cutting should be done just above an inside bud. On the other hand, 




Fig. 33a. — Same tree shown in Fig. 33, after being pruned. 

the Rome Beauty tree has a habit of growing upright, similar to the 
Bartlett pear, and by cutting branches in each case just above outside 
buds the tendency will be for the branches to grow outwardly and thus 
spread the head. More attention to this particular phase of the pruning 
operation will be necessary during successive seasons than during 
the second. 

The desired number of branches having been selected and cut back 
as shown in the figures, the tree is now ready for the third season's 
growth. 

PRUNING THE THIRD SEASON. 

Fig. 34 shows the ideal type of head after the third season's prun- 
ing, when three scaffold branches have been used in forming the frame- 
work. It will be noticed that on each one of these have been left three 
of the season's branches, selected so as to avoid bad crotches, properly 
spaced and cut back just as was the previous season's growth. Thus 
we have a tree with a trunk which has had three years' growth. From 



APPLE GROWING IN CALIFORNIA. 



53 



this trunk are three branches which have had two years' growth, and in 
turn each one of these supports three main branches with a few laterals 
or fifteen for the entire tree, which have had only one year's growth. 
If instead of the five scaffold branch tree we develop a head with three 
there would be only nine of the one year old branches left, which, how- 
ever, is enough with the laterals that they in turn will throw out to 
make a big tree, capable of bearing just as much fruit as the former, 
and having the advantage usually of extra strength of branches. 

A slight modification of the system recommended for the first three 
vears is used in heading the young Gravenstein trees in the Sebastopol 




Fig. 34. — A young apple tree, well headed, after the third season's pruning: 

(Original.) 

section. This tree makes a splendid growth under the conditions exist- 
ing in that section, and in order to prevent crowding in the head, 
to render cultivation easy close to the trees, and to develop strong 
branches, three are left during the second season and cut back as 
already suggested. Only one branch is allowed to develop on each of the 
three limbs of the second season's growth, and is cut back the third 
season, so that the tree still has only three main branches, but each 
one cut back so that the height of the head is increased by only a couple 
of feet. Fig. 35 shows a young Gravenstein tree at Sebastopol with 
three selected branches cut back to 7 inches the beginning of the second 
season and allowed to develop additional length the third. The fourth 
season two or three branches are selected on each one of these. In this 
manner a little higher branching head is developed, but one which is 
very strong (see Fig. 36), due to the growth being thrown into only 
three branches, well cut back for two seasons after planting. 



54 



APPLE GROWING IN CALIFORNIA. 



PRUNING THE FOURTH AND FIFTH SEASONS. 

At the end of the third season a shapely head should be formed and 
such a framework for the future tree developed, that pruning ought 
not to be a difficult matter. Too often do we find orchardists neglect- 
ing the work after this time. The first three seasons while trees are 
small the task is neither expensive nor difficult, but as they grow there 
is a rapid increase of both expense and difficulty of pruning in general, 
and the tendency is to be rather careless afterwards. It must be re- 




Fig. 



5. — A young Gravenstein tree after the third season's pruning, shaped after the 
methods used in the Sehastopol section. (Photograph by O. E. Bremner) 



membered, however, that pruning for the best results must not be 
neglected for a single season. Careful, annual pruning, beginning the 
first season when the trees are set and continued until they no longer 
bear crops, will do more toward making a success of the apple business 
than practically everything else. Neglect for one or more seasons, fol- 
lowed by very heavy pruning as a result, is not conducive to regular 
bearing of the trees, nor to successful apple culture. 

During the fourth and fifth seasons the trees will bear a little, but 
should not be allowed to overload themselves. The orchardist should 
sfill devote his energies toward growing trees and not fruit. All inter- 



APPLE GROWING IN CALIFORNIA. 



55 



fcring branches should be removed. The balance of the head should be 
preserved and at least a moderate amount of cutting back of branches 
should be done. Care in cutting to outside buds during the cutting 
back process will have a tendency to spread the trees if such is desir- 
able, or the reverse operation may be found necessary. Fruit spurs 
will have developed by the fifth season and care should be exercised to 
preserve these on the trunks and larger limbs, where they are so often 




Fig. 06. — A tree with a very strong' framework developed by heavy cutting back. 
(Photograph by O. E. Bremner) 

cut off by primers. One of the mistakes most commonly made in prun- 
ing apple orchards is the cutting away of these spurs. Unintelligent 
primers will almost always begin cutting from the ground and the re- 
moval of these valuable spurs is the result. Orehardists should insist 
that pruning be done very largely from a ladder, as the tops of the trees 
need a good share of the attention in this work. In fact, if heading 
has been well done there should be practically no cutting from the 
ground, except possibl}- of a few succulent sprouts. 



56 



APPLE GROWING IN CALIFORNIA. 



PRUNING MATURE TREES. 
Correct heading and careful annual pruning of the apple tree for 
the first five years simplifies the pruning operation for the years to 
follow. Except in cases of accident to trees there should be no large 
branches to take out. The work thus far should have been done with 
the idea of leaving just enough large branches to form the best possible 
head without any interference or crowding. Just as soon as such 
takes place in later years all branches that have a tendency to interfere 
with others should be taken out before they attain a large size. More 




Fig. 37. — A tree of the Yellow Newtown variety, showing the development of 
fruit spurs from water sprouts, clue to summer pruning. (Original) 

or less cutting back will be necessary each season, and a study may be 
made of the habits of growth of different varieties and cutting to out- 
side buds or branches, or the opposite may be practiced according to 
the needs of the variety. In most cases fruit spurs should be preserved 
and it may even be necessary to encourage their development. 

Mr. W. S. Ballard of the Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Depart- 
ment of Agriculture, and Mr. W. H. Volck, County Horticultural Com- 
missioner of Santa Cruz County, have been carrying on some very 
interesting experiments for the past few years to determine the feasi- 
bility of developing fruiting spurs from the so-called water sprout 
growth that always develops more or less in every orchard. They 
found that by cutting back such sprouts early in the summer season. 



APPLE GROWING IN CALIFORNIA. 



57 



leaving two or three inches at first and cutting- the new growth back 
two or three times later in the season, so that by the end of the growing 
period there would be formed a growth about six inches long, a fruit 
spur that would bear excellent fruit the following season could be 
developed. Fig. 37 shows one of the trees in the experimental orchard 
near Watsonville. Similar results may be attained by cutting back 
these sprouts during the dormant season, but it may take several 
years to form healthy, vigorous fruit spurs. By the summer pruning 
method only one season is necessary. Not only are the water sprouts 




Fig. 38.— Branch well studded with apples, close to the main limb and not in 
danger of wind damage. (Original) 

cut back but also new growth throughout the entire head of the trees. 
Thus fruit spurs are formed close to the larger limbs and as a result 
apples are produced close in as shown in Fig. 38. 

The results of the experimental work done by Messrs. Ballard and 
Volck mean much to orehardists who have allowed the destruction by 
pruning of fruit spurs low down on their trees. Heavy cutting back 
from the top w 7 ill generally induce much of the so-called water sprout 
growth low down, which may be utilized in the development of spurs. 
Not only the water sprouts low down on the trunk may be made over 
into fruit bearing wood, but new growth anywhere on the tree may be 
handled in the same manner with the consequent development of fruit 
spurs. In places where trees have a tendency to bear light loads of 
fruit this method of summer pruning, whereby all rank growth is 
checked and the development of fruit spurs encouraged, can be used 
to verv great advantage. 



NATURAL BRACING. 

When a tree has not been well headed or well pruned it is sometimes 
desirable to brace the branches against possible injury. This is done 
by twisting together two young twigs, when a union between the two 
will take place, forming such a brace as shown in Fig. 39. 



58 



APPLE GROWING IN CALIFORNIA. 



STUBS. 

Notwithstanding the fact that the practice of leaving stubs in an 
orchard when pruning, has been condemned by expert horticulturists 
in practically every publication on pruning, there are still a great 
many trees to be seen in some of our otherwise splendid orchards, with 
these unsightly and dangerous stubs, bearing testimony to the fact that 
primers either did not understand their business or did not care how 
the work was done. 

Branches should always be cut off close to other branches or trunks 
from which they emanate, in which case healing will take place and the 
wounds will in time be covered over with new bark, provided that rot 




Pig. 39. — Natural braces used to strengthen branches. (Original) 

fungi, with their attendant decay, do not develop. If stubs of any size 
are left on apple trees, they always die back to the point where the cut 
should have been made and very frequently dying does not stop at 
this point, but the trunk or larger limbs are also involved. 

The reason for this dying back is very clear, when we consider how 
the tree gets its supply of plant food that enters into its growth. As 
every orchardist knows, this food is taken from the ground in solution 
in the water of the soil, and is carried upward through the sap-wood to 
the leaves. There, through a complex process it is elaborated or con- 
verted into starch and sugar and becomes available food, which then 
journeys downward through the cambium or growing layer of the bark. 
It is then capable of healing wounds and entering into the life of trees. 
Before going to the leaves in its crude form there could be no healing. 
Knowing this it can easily be seen why dying back takes place in the 
stubs that are left by careless or thoughtless primers. The apple tree 



APPLK CROWING IN CALIFORNIA. 



59 



is not quick to develop buds and throw out new growth from a cut off 
branch, hence we have a stub without any foliage to manufacture the 
plant food from the crude material taken up by the roots, and while the 
sap may journey upward for a time through such stubs, there is no 
downward flow of elaborated sap from the leaves and consequently no 
healing. Rot fungi get in their work soon afterwards, drying out takes 
place, and a tree may be ruined in a very short time. Many an orchard 
in California has either died outright or become worthless because of 
the careless leaving of stubs. 

TREATMENT OF WOUNDS. 

Since drying out over the cut surface takes place very rapidly after 
a branch has been removed, it has been the practice to paint over wounds 
to prevent this drying, thus giving the healing process a better chance 
to operate. It is probable that the idea of painting has been carried 
to the extreme and too much dependence has been placed upon it. A 
branch can not heal, as has already been pointed out. unless the cut 
has been properly made. There has been a tendency among some 
orchardists to cut without any care whatever, and then paint heavily, 




Fig. 40. — A good type of pruning saw. 

expecting the treatment to work the miracle of healing against nature's 

way. It probably does not pay at all to treat small cuts, and unless the 
branch removed is three inches in diameter or more, the time and labor 
spent in painting would probably be lost. 

When treatment of wounds is thought to be necessary there is nothing 
better to use than a common lead paint. Certain grades of asphaltum 
have also been used with success. 

PRUNING TOOLS. 

Much time is often wasted and sometimes damage done to trees 
because of the use of poor tools. Practically all the pruning work about 




Fig. 41. — A good type of pruning shears. 



an orchard can be done with the saw shown in Fig 40 and shears in 
Pig. 41. The former has a blade which can be inclined at any angle, 
so that it is possible to cut in almost any kind of a crotch. The blades, 
when broken, can be easily removed and replaced at small cost. 



60 APPLE GROWING IN CALIFORNIA. 

CHAPTER VIII. 

TOP- WORKING APPLE TREES. 

It frequently happens that varieties of trees are found, when they 
come into bearing, to be different from those that were ordered; again, 
varieties may have been poorly chosen and found to be unadapted to 
the conditions where they are set out. In either case grafting over to 
some other variety may be necessary. 

In the case of two or three year old trees this process is very simple 
and may be done without any appreciable injury to the trees. Such 
young trees as these can be very easily budded by inserting buds of 
the desired variety into small branches low down. Several branches 
can be selected because of their placement being such as to be desirable 
in the formation of the head. The best time is in August or September. 
The following spring, if the buds are found to be green, indicating 
that they have united with the bark of the tree, branches should be cut 
away just above, thus throwing the strength of the tree into the buds, 
when they should make a very rapid growth. If trees have large tops 
it may not be well to cut them all away at once, but to leave a portion 
of them until the buds have made a good start, when the entire tops 
can be removed. 

If grafting is preferred to budding, larger limbs may be chosen. In 
fact, if the tree is only two years old it may be successfully grafted 
by cutting it back below the branches and inserting one or two scions, 
according to the size of the trunk. There are several methods of graft- 
ing, the two most common being known as kerf and cleft grafting. The 
first consists of the insertion of a scion in a V-shaped opening made in 
side of limb, the scion being shaped to fit tightly into this opening, 
where it is immediately covered with wax. Cleft grafting consists in 
the splitting of the ends of the sawed-off limbs and the insertion of 
scions previously cut at one end, so that the cambium layer may be 
brought into contact with the corresponding layer of the limb being 
grafted. Whether cleft or kerf grafting is done the scions should be 
sloped a little outward, so that the cambium layers will cross, otherwise 
there may be no point of contact between the two and as a consequence 
no union. Crossing is all that is necessary to insure a good union. 
Waxing to exclude the air should be carefully done. 

The scion should be made from one year old wood with well formed, 
thrifty buds taken from a good producing tree. Succulent water sprout 
growth is not desirable for scion wood. Two or three buds are sufficient 
to leave on each scion and the ends, if cut, should be waxed over. 

What has been said in regard to grafting young trees will apply to 
old also, but very large limbs should not be chosen for grafting. Bud- 
ding may be successfully done in young growth low down on older 
trees. If limbs two inches in diameter or more are cut off for the inser- 
tion of scions more than one should be put in a stub. In the case of 
very large limbs, several must be inserted if the healing of the cut 
surface takes place entirely around the stub. A scion should not be 
expected to heal for more than an inch and one half or two inches on 



APPLE GROWING IN CALIFORNIA. 61 

each side, and enough must be used to heal the stub entirely around, or 
else drying out and the death of parts not fed by the downward flow 
<>F sap from the leaves of the scion will take place, weakening, if not 
eventually killing, the stub and its graft. 

Many experienced grafters prefer to leave a considerable portion of 
the top of old trees for one or two seasons after grafting. This is 
undoubtedly a good practice, but such should not be left long enough 
to interfere with the growth of the grafts. 

Aphis are very often exceedingly destructive to young grafts and 
care should be taken to control them by means of sprays before they 
bring about permanent injury. 

GRAFTING WAXES. 

A good grafting wax being one of the requisites for successful graft- 
ing, the following, copied from "Fruit Growing in Arid Regions," by 
Paddock and "Whipple, is given : 

" * * * There are the waxes applied warm with a brush and those applied cold, the 
heat of the hands being sufficient to make them pliable. With the first it is neces- 
sary to have special equipment to keep the wax melted in the field, and this generally 
limits its use to a few professional grafters who are prepared to use it. The cold 
waxes are prepared for use by melting together the ingredients, pouring the melted 
material in cold water, and pulling it like taffy until it becomes a buff color. It can 
be kept from season to season by immersing it in water. The common formula given 
for the preparation of this wax is four pounds of resin, two pounds of beeswax, and 
one pound of tallow. Paraffin may be substituted for the beeswax in this formula : 
although it seems that the resulting wax is hardly as durable, it serves the purpose 
very well. By increasing the amount of resin in the above formula to six pounds, it 
makes a very good hard wax for warm application. Another good wax to be applied 
warm is prepared by melting together three pounds of resin, one pound of beeswax 
and one pint of raw linseed oil." 



62 APPLE GROWING IN CALIFORNIA. 

CHAPTER IX. 

INTERCROPPING. 

During the five years or more while the young apple orchard is 
coming into bearing it is often quite a problem for the man of limited 
means to make a living, and he must either secure work elsewhere or 
grow crops between the trees, out of which he can make a sufficient sum 
to keep up expenses until a profit can be made from the apples. 

Cropping of land between orchard trees, even while young, has some- 
times been discouraged, but the writer can see no good reason why such 
should not be done even after trees come into bearing, provided that 
certain precautions are exercised. The orchard should of course receive 
first consideration and no crops of any kind should be grown between 
the tree rows, which in their care would detract from the care of the 
trees. In this connection it is unwise to grow crops that require water 
late in the summer or in early fall, as irrigation at that time may start 
new growth or keep trees growing too long into the winter, in either 
case rendering them liable to injury during the winter months, because 
of the soft unripened condition of the wood. 

It may happen that there is scarcity of irrigation water for the 
orchard. In such case it would also be unwise to plant intercrops of 
any kind and thus take away the moisture needed by the trees. 

Crops such as corn, which make a rank growth, might not be best 
for very young trees, on account of shading them too much. 

Notwithstanding these objections that may be cited against an inter- 
crop in the young orchard, conditions are very often such that with 
the proper crops and the proper care there will be no harm done, and 
much good may even result to the orchard because of better care due 
to these crops. 

As was mentioned in another chapter, California soils are usually 
deficient in nitrogen and any leguminous crop is good to grow between 
the trees, because of its adding this important element to the soil. Peas 
and beans for this reason are excellent as intercrops, and provided that 
market facilities for such are good there is probably nothing better that 
can be grown. Of the non-leguminous crops may be mentioned potatoes, 
cantaloupes, strawberries, cabbages, celery, in fact almost any vegetable 
crop, and the one chosen will depend in most cases upon the demand 
for the product. 

Field corn is quite frequently used as an intercrop, but is probably 
not the best crop for the first year, at least. Its tendency to grow very 
tall if it does well is against it, for the young trees are very often shaded 
too much, and as a consequence fail to make the growth that they 
should. This objection may be partly eliminated by keeping the rows 
of corn several feet away from rows of trees, thus giving the latter more 
room. Sweet corn and popcorn, because of their smaller growth and 
lesser amount of shade, could be grown with less danger of damage than 
the field corn. 

The growing of intercrops is very often discouraged because of the 
plant food that is taken from the soil, thus depriving the trees of their 
supply. This objection is certainly weak, for no one should expect to 
grow orchard trees on land for many years without fertilizing to supply 
the elements removed, and the growing of crops between the trees merely 
hastens the time when such fertilization must be done. 



APPLE GROWING IN CALIFORNIA. 



63 



< II AFTER X. 



IRRIGATION, CULTIVATION- COVER CROPS AND 
FERTILIZERS. 

The scarcity of water in some parts of the state where apples are 
grown, and the total absence of rain during the summer season, makes 
the conservation of moisture in the soil one of the important orchard 
problems. Fortunately, the rainfall during the winter Is ordinarily 
quite heavy and the ground receives a good soaking during that season. 
If nothing is done to check the evaporation of moisture after the rains 
cease and the hot weather comes on, the soil may become too dry in a 
very short time. Those who are fortunate enough to have a good supply 
of irrigation water are inclined to use it freely, thus keeping the orchard 




Fig. 41 



-Well tilled orchard in Humboldt County 



in a moist condition without any attempt to conserve what is added. 
Very frequeotly, it may be said, too much water is used for the 
good of the orchard, which would be better off if less were applied and 
the cultivator used more. The best condition of the soil occurs not 
when it is excessively wet, but when it is quite moist and the surface 
not baked but in a loose, workable condition. Aeration is just as neces- 
sary for the best development of the root system as moisture, and an 
excessive quantity of the latter may cut off the air supply to such an 
extent as to interfere materially with the growth of the trees. 

It is sometimes difficult to make people believe that cultivation does 
actually conserve the moisture, but a trial only is sufficient to convince 
the most skeptical. The reason that it does lies in the fact that the 



64 



APPLE GROWING IN CALIFORNIA. 



capillary action, by means of which the soil water is brought to the sur- 
face and there evaporated, is checked. In other words, the soil is made 
up of tine particles with spaces in between which become filled with 
water. As a liquid in a fine tube will always travel upwards and reach 
a level much higher than outside the tube, so in the soil we find the same 
tendency, and we may conceive of the water as coming up through 
myriads of little tubes which remain wide open to the surface unless 
something is done to interfere with their continuity. Such interference 
may be brought about by the use of the cultivator during the summer 
season, when evaporation takes place so rapidly under ordinary condi- 
tions ; but, as they will soon open up again after disturbance by the cul- 
livator, frequent cultivations are necessary, so that as fast as the mois- 




Fig. 43. — Well tilled orchard in Santa Cruz County. (Original) 

ture finds its way to the surface through these tubes, it is checked by 
again breaking the capillarity. Figs. 42 and 43 show two well tilled 
orchards in Humboldt and Santa Cruz counties. The ideal condition of 
the soil to prevent evaporation is that of a dust mulch, which may be 
maintained by working the soil with some type of harrow or cultivator 
once a week. Some enthusiastic advocates of clean cultivation have 
gone over their orchards even more frequently than this. 

Besides being a valuable means whereby moisture may be conserved, 
cultivation is beneficial in keeping down weeds, and also places the soil 
in the best possible condition for root development and the resultant 
tree growth. It is a matter of common observation that orchards to 



APPLE GROWING IN CALIFORNIA. 65 

which frequent summer cultivations are given make better growth than 
do those where cultivation is neglected. In most parts of the arid West, 
but not commonly in California, we find conditions that do not favor 
summer cultivation. The winters in these places are so cold that noth- 
ing can be grown during that season of the year. Consequently there is 
no time, if clean cultivation is practiced, when a crop can be grown for 
the addition of nitrogen or humus, hence the necessity of growing a 
summer cover crop. 

COVER CROPS. 

In most parts of California our fine warm winter climate enables 
us to grow crops of some kind in the orchard during this season. 
Owing to this fact summer cultivation is advocated and is practiced 
successfully nearly everywhere that apples are grown. Because our 
soils are deficient in nitrogen, a leguminous cover crop is preferable. 
Among the legumes which have given good satisfaction under our con- 
ditions may be mentioned the common burr clover, vetches, peas, sweet 
clover and alfalfa. Many object to the growing of alfalfa in an apple 
orchard, and probably it is not good practice to sow it unless it is done 
with the idea of using it for a cover crop only and not for hay. On 
hardpan soils there is nothing better than the root system of the alfalfa 
to penetrate into this hard layer, thus breaking it up more or less and 
enabling the apple roots to go down deeper. When used for this pur- 
pose it should of course be left growing in the orchard more than one 
season. When alfalfa is sown it should be kept some distance from the 
trees in order to facilitate plowing later on, and is only desirable where 
plenty of water is available for irrigation. Generally speaking, the 
cover crop should be grown only during the winter season, being plowed 
under early in the spring, if possible, before the rains have ceased. 
Frequent cultivations later on, after the season becomes warm, will 
result in conservation of the moisture. If it is not possible to grow 
a leguminous cover crop, an annual crop such as rye, wheat or barley 
may be grown. In this case the principal value would be to better the 
physical condition of the soil, together with the addition of humus. 
There are places in the state, no doubt, where apples are grown, and 
where the rainfall is insufficient to make a cover crop practical, even 
during the winter season. In such cases fertilizing must be done in 
some other way. 

One of the most successful apple growers of the East says that he 
made his orchard practically an annual bearer by the use of cover crops. 

FERTILIZERS. 

There is nothing better for the orchard than barnyard manure, and 
while the supply is often limited it is in other cases wasted when it 
might be used to good advantage. It is always wise to apply this 
liberally, unless the cost is such as to make it prohibitive. 

Commercial fertilizers have not been used extensively, but no doubt 
would give results under certain conditions at least. Spraying with 
nitrate of soda and other nitrates, in the early spring, has been done 



-136S3 



66 APPLE GROWING IN CALIFORNIA. 

in an experimental way by W. H. Volek at Watsonville. The results 
that he has attained have on the whole been excellent, and this method 
of applying nitrates bids fair to come into general use. 

Many of our California soils are deficient in lime and the addition 
of either air slaked or ground stone lime might be beneficial. No rules 
can be laid down for this work because of the great varieties of soil 
that occur in the state. If trees are not doing well it may be that 
fertilizers of some kind are needed. A soil analysis will serve as a 
guide as to what should be added, but must not be depended upon too 
much, for while it shows what elements of plant food the soil contains, 
and the proportions of each present, it does not show T how much of each 
is available, so after all much experimental work is necessary. 

As stated previously, nitrates are nearly always scarce and fertiliza- 
tion usually means the addition of the element nitrogen, either in the 
form of leguminous cover crops grown in the soil, or mineral nitrates 
applied direct or in the form of a spray to the trees. 



APPLE GROWING IN CALIFORNIA. • >? 



CHAPTER XI. 



THINNING. 

One important operation in connection with the handling of our im- 
mature apple crop, viz, thinning, is too often neglected. The excuse 
generally given for not thinning is that it costs too much. This is a 
case, however, where a little extra money invested will add greatly to 
the income of an orchard. There are records of a number of experi- 
ments that have been carried out which prove conclusively that thinning 
pays, and to neglect the operation means to fail to do one of the most 
important things in connection with the growing of apples. 

INFLUENCE UPON THE FRUIT. 

It is the desire" of every fruit grower to produce fruit possessing a 
good size, high color, fine quality and uniformity. Such is usually 
impossible unless thinning is practiced. 

The size that fruit attains — not taking into consideration the varia- 
tion due to variety — is influenced more or less by age of trees, stock, 
soil, climate, cultural methods and the presence of disease or insect 
pests. Some of these influences may be such as to prevent the pro- 
duction of a desirable size of fruit, but in general our trees will with 
ordinary care produce fruit of good size, provided that they are not 
overloaded. The time has passed when we want to place a premium 
on abnormally large fruit. It is not the purpose to advocate thinning 
so heavily as to bring about an overgrown condition, but during seasons 
of big crops to thin to a point where the most desirable size for the 
variety can be attained. Any one who is at all familiar with the 
orchard business knows that great losses are often occasioned because 
of undersized apples. 

The desirability of producing good color is unquestioned. Not only 
does this please the eye but also adds to the quality. A rosy red 
Winesap or Baldwin apple will be sweet and juicy, with a flavor to 
suit the most delicate palate, while the same varieties grown on the 
same trees, but uncolored, will be scarcely relished. Leaving out of 
consideration the fact that color inlinences quality in the variety, the 
beautiful red apple will command higher prices on the market than 
better varieties without color. 

While size, color and quality must all be taken into consideration, 
there is probably nothing more desirable than uniformity, and in no 
way can this condition lie brought about better than by thinning; in 
fact, it is impossible during seasons of large crops, at least, to secure 
uniformity in size in any other way. The greatest argument in favor 
of thinning, as far as the fruit alone is concerned, is based on the above 
statement. A lack of uniformity complicates standardization methods 
and all the operations of packing, and is not at all desirable in the 
canning and drying business. If by thinning, fruit can be made to 
average well in size, a considerable outlay of money is justifiable for 
the operation. 

Another argument in favor of thinning lias to do with the pres- 
ence of the worst insect pest of this fruit, viz, the codling moth. 



6S APPLE GROWING IN CALIFORNIA. 

If apples are allowed to grow in clusters so that they are touching one 
another the larvae not only take advantage of the ideal point of entry 
between the apples, but the sprayer is placed at a decided disadvantage, 
for he finds it extremely difficult to get the spray where it will be eaten 
by the worms. Varieties that have a tendency to cluster are nearly 
;il ways riddled by codling moth if the pest is present in large numbers, 
unless the clusters are broken up by thinning. 

INFLUENCE OF THINNING UPON TREES. 

As far as the trees themselves are concerned there are three main 
reasons why thinning should be practiced: first, it allows them to make 
a proper growth; secondly, it prevents breakage of limbs, and thirdly, 
it induces uniform annual crops. 

A tree is capable of taking just so much plant food in the way of 
nitrogen, potash, phosphoric acid, etc.. from the soil through its roots, 
and carbon from the air through its leaves. An excessive amount of 
fruit is apt to require most of this food at the expense of a good thrifty 
growth. The desire of most orchardists is to develop a tree to bearing 
size in the shortest possible time, and to have it bear abundant crops 
each season, often depriving it of proper growth in so doing. Our 
trees, I fear, are too often worked to death, and we wonder why in a 
few years ' time they begin to deteriorate and the crops of former years 
are not harvested. The splendid deep soils so full of plant foods that 
we find so commonly in our state, will do much towards bringing about 
the heavy annual bearing so greatly desired, but no soil will last for- 
ever, and the time will come when trees, or whatever else may be grown 
on land for year after year, will develop large crops only at the expense 
of growth and health, unless something is done in the way of fertilizing 
to build up the soil and thinning to prevent over-bearing. 

Thinning to prevent branches from breaking down under their 
weight of fruit is quite generally practiced, but too frequently do we 
find the prop doing this duty. A heavy crop of apples is usually fol- 
lowed by a light one. This is undoubtedly due to the fact that the 
trees are allowed to bear too heavily during seasons of good crops, con- 
sequently the formation of fruit buds for the next season's crop is 
prevented. A tree not only has to mature its crop of fruit and make 
a certain amount of growth during a season, but it also has to make 
fruit buds for the succeeding season, a process which is frequently 
rendered impossible by overproduction. 

THINNING BY PRUNING. 

The cutting out of wood containing fruit buds during the dormant 
season may be done as the first step in thinning the crop. Pruning, 
when done with the idea of thinning the fruit, must be done intelli- 
gently and not by men whose only knowledge of the business consists 
in their ability to cut off a branch because they think it interferes with 
the proper shape of the tree. Because of no knowledge of the bearing 
habits of an apple tree we sometimes see trees from which all the fruit 
spurs have been cut as high above the ground as a man can reach. 
These are exaggerated cases, but serve to illustrate the fact that too 
little attention is paid to some of these fundamental principles which 
bear upon the subject of thinning. 



APPLE GROWING IN CALIFORNIA. 69 

Pruning can not be made to take the place of thinning altogether. 
Fruit will cluster just the same on pruned trees as those unpruned, 
and there is no way of breaking up these clusters and giving each fruit 
room for development, except by picking off part of it by hand. 

THINNING BY REMOVING THE FRUIT AFTER IT SETS. 

The earlier the fruit is removed the better chance will the remainder 
have to develop. While no time can be set, that will not be subject to 
wide variation with seasons and different fruits, in general thinning 
should be done just as soon as possible after the fruit sets and danger of 
the early, or so-called June drop, is over. The work may be done cpiite 
handily with a pair of thinning shears such as shown in Fig. 44. These 
may be purchased at small cost and will greatly aid in the work. 




Fig. 44. — A good type of shears for use in thinning apples. 



The amount of fruit that should be left on a tree is. of course, an 
exceedingly hard thing to judge. Some have advocated thinning with 
the idea of leaving a certain number of boxes of well developed fruit, 
While this might not be done with a very great degree of accuracy at 
first, those who have tried it claim that in a very short time one will 
learn just about how to space the apples so that an amount approxi- 
mating a certain number of boxes is left, This spacing will, of course, 
vary with the variety, the average being about six inches. If trees 
are well set with fruit so that an even distribution can be brought 
about, all clusters should be broken up until no two apples touch, and 
all fruit on the tips of small twigs should be removed. Careful, sj^s- 
tematic work is necessary for the greatest success. He who goes into 
his orchard with a pole and knocks off some fruit here and there has 
not thinned. True, he has relieved the tree of some of its burden, but, 
in all probability, in such a way that he will not be repaid to any 
extent for his efforts. 



70 APPLE GROWING IN CALIFORNIA. 



CHAPTER XII. 



INJURY AND PROTECTION OF APPLES FROM FREEZING. 

It has already been stated that one of the chief limiting" factors in 
the production of apples throughout the various states of the Union is 
frost. It is true that there are certain sections of the country where 
frosts have seldom or never occurred to the detriment of the fruit crop. 
Experience of orchardists in California and elsewhere has led to the 
conclusion that no section, no matter how free it has been from killing 
frosts during the danger period of trees in the past, can be said to 
possess immunity, and there may come a time when the temperature 
will drop so low that buds, blossoms and fruit, if not trees, must suc- 
cumb. There are, of course, many places where fine fruit is grown dur- 
ing favorable seasons that are visited by killing frosts periodically, and 
the chances for and against raising a crop are about even. Such sections 
do not offer the best advantages for commercial orcharding unless some 
practical means of protecting the crop during the danger period may 
be employed. 

PERIOD OF GREATEST DANGER FROM KILLING FROSTS. 

In the ease of apples, the injury is usually done either to the buds, 
blossoms or small fruit in the early spring, about blossoming time, 
although a severe freeze during the winter season may kill the buds, 
which often stand temperatures ranging from ten to thirty degrees or 
more below zero. The period of greatest danger corresponds very 
closely to the time from when the buds begin to swell in the spring 
until the fruit has reached a diameter of a half inch. This time is, 
of course, subject to variations in climate, due to altitude or local 
conditions. 

BUD INJURY. 

Winter or early spring injury to buds may be detected by a discolored 
area seen in the center upon cutting them open. The pistil or central 
organ of the blossom is usually the first part to freeze and, once frozen, 
fertilization is rendered impossible. Blossoms so injured w T ill sometimes 
develop, and the trees will come out in bloom and be just as beautiful 
as if nothing had happened. An examination of such blossoms will show 
the blackened pistil in the center. A peculiar form of freezing of apple 
blossoms, which has come to my notice in another state, destroys the 
petals entirely. The rest of the parts of the blossom develop normally, 
fertilization takes place as usual, and a good crop of fruit may set 
on the trees. 

FRUIT INJURY. 

Often fruit develops from frost-injured blossoms, but as a rule only 
when fertilization has taken place prior to the injury. In Bulletin 91 
of the Montana Experiment Station, Prof. 0. B. Whipple gives an 
interesting account of the parthenocarpic development (development 
without fertilization) of apples, most of which were seedless and core- 



APPLE GROWING IN CALIFORNIA. 



71 



less and unfit for use commercially. It is a very common thing to 
find seedless apples or pears during a season following a freeze at 
blossoming time or shortly afterwards. Pig. 15 is a picture of two 
Yellow Bellfiowers picked from the same tree. One apple is almost true 
to the type of this particular variety; the other is very much flattened 




Fig. 45. — Normal shaped Yellow Bellflower on right, abnormal on left because of 
frost injury. (Original) 




Fig. 40. — Normal shaped Yellow Bellflower on right contains well-developed seeds; 
abnormal frost-injured specimen on lett has none. (Original) 

and distorted. Most of the apples in the orchard where these were 
picked resembled the latter, and it was difficult to find a typical-shaped 
Yellow Bellflower. All apples of this shape were seedless. This trouble 
might easily be confused with distortion of apples from the attack of 



72 APPLE GROWING IN CALIFORNIA. 

purple apple aphis. This pest always leaves the apples small and mis- 
shapen, but well-formed seeds are present. Fig. 46 shows the same two 
apples as in Fig. 45, which have been cut open. A well-developed seed 
is shown in the core of the typical-shaped apple, while the other one has 
none 

Another form of injury is the so-called frost russet illustrated in 
Fig. 47. The russeting very frequently shapes itself in a band about the 
fruit, but in some cases may occur in the calyx and stem cavities. This 
injury is very commonly confused with that resulting from scab, 
Bordeaux injury and various other things. The presence of the charac- 
teristic bands as illustrated is a sure indication of frost injury. 




Fig. 47 — Frost russet band on apples. (Original) 

LEAF INJURY. 

A peculiar crumpling or blistering of the leaves of certain varieties 
usually follows severe spring freezes. The epidermis of the leaf may 
separate from the inside portion wherever these blisters occur. Such 
leaves are apt to turn yellow and drop very early in the season. This 
form of injury is not serious. 

SUSCEPTIBILITY OF VARIETIES. 

Some varieties of apples will stand much more freezing than others. 
Again, some varieties will blossom much later than others, thus escaping 
a frost that would injure earlier blossoming varieties. It is. therefore, 
wise for the orchardist who lives in sections of killing spring frosts 
to select the hardiest, and in some cases preference should be given to 
late blooming varieties. As an illustration of this fact the Rome Beauty 
and Ralls apples blossom much later than the Ben Davis and Jona- 
than, consequently often escape injury when the latter named varieties 
are killed bv a freeze coming about blossoming time. 



APPLE GROWING IN CALIFORNIA. (3 

FROST PROTECTION. 
It is safe to say that the orchard which is well cared for in general is 
less liable to injury from freezing than the one which is neglected. The 
first point which should be emphasized, then, in connection with protect- 
ing the orchard from killing frosts, is proper care. Cultivation, prun- 
ing, fertilization, irrigation and spraying are all necessary at certain 
times for the best development of trees, including the fruit bnds. If 
the buds can go into the winter in perfect condition, there is every 
reason to believe that they will stand more than they would if devital- 
ized because of unhealthy trees. 

SMUDGING. 

It has long been known that there is little danger from killing frosts 
on a cloudy night. This fact has led to a belief that the same protection 
afforded by the clouds can be produced artificially by means of smoke. 
With this idea in view, various materials which in burning will pro- 
duce much smoke, have been burned in orchards during frosty nights. 
This method of protection is known as smudging, and is fast giving 
way to the better method of heating. It is probable that light frosts 
have been warded off by means of such smudges, or at least a sufficient 
blanket has been formed over an orchard in the early morning to pre- 
vent the rapid thawing of the blossoms which, if thawed out too rapidly, 
are sure to be killed. It is now thought that smudging in itself is of 
little value, and many of the successful orchard heaters now in use are 
designed to utilize as much of the fuel as possible; the more complete 
the combustion the better they are thought to be. 

ORCHARD HEATING. 

While there are still many problems in connection with orchard heat- 
ing yet to be solved, it is now generally conceded that, under certain 
conditions, at least, a crop of fruit — citrus or deciduous — can be saved, 
even though the temperature falls as much as fifteen degrees below 
freezing. During spring freezes of four different seasons in Colorado, 
the writer had abundant opportunity to study the various operations 
of the orchard heating business in time of action, and the effect of 
such heating in saving fruit. The first practical demonstration of what 
could be accomplished was made in the spring of 1908. Three or four 
different parties had previously purchased some of the Bolton orchard 
heaters, which at that time were manufactured in California. By the 
use of these small lard-pail pots, as they were called, which held about 
three quarts of oil, these men succeeded in saving a considerable amount 
of fruit. The demonstration was a perfect one, for only in the heated 
areas was there any fruit. Before this time there were orchards in 
California where heaters had been used. The Limoneira Company had 
done considerable work along this line, and had used wire baskets for 
burning coal with more or less success. The fact that it was possible 
to save a crop of fruit by burning coal or oil in containers led to the 
making and patenting of a great many types of heaters, practically 
any one of which will do the work, provided that the necessary amount 
of fuel is burned. Both coal and oil have given satisfaction, but the 
latter is preferred by most orchardists. In California, where oil is so 



74 APPLE GROWING IN CALIFORNIA. 

cheap and coal is so high, it does not seem as though any one would be 
justified in purchasing coal heaters. It would not be wise to recommend 
any particular make of heater in this book. In general, the reservoir 
type of oil heater is the most satisfactory. One can scarcely afford 
to purchase heaters and other equipment for the work and then fail 
because of an insufficient supply of oil. Of course, it is possible to 
refill small heaters, or to have a reserve supply of them on hand, but 
such entails extra work and expense at time of heating when it is often 
hard to get enough help. 

PLACEMENT OF HEATERS IN ORCHARD. 

One heater for each tree is ordinarily used. These heaters are 
commonly placed in the center of the rectangle formed by four trees. 

WHEN TO LIGHT. 

Firing should begin before the temperature has reached the danger 
point, the object being to keep it at a certain point rather than to let 
it drop below and then try to raise it again. For example, it is much 
easier to maintain a temperature of thirty-two degrees when the outside 
temperature is twenty-five degrees than it is to raise it to thirty-two 
degrees, after it has dropped down to twenty-five degrees. While fruit 
buds or blossoms may stand this temperature for a short time, it is never 
safe to let it get so cold. 

KEEP FIRING WELL AFTER SUNRISE. 

Many a crop of fruit has been lost because fuel played out, or because 
men became tired or careless and let fires go down at daybreak. The 
coldest period is very often about sunrise and the heaviest firing is neces- 
sary at this time. 

USE ONLY TESTED THERMOMETERS. 

To depend upon a twenty-five cent thermometer in the orchard heat- 
ing business, when thousands of dollars are at stake, is inexcusable fool- 
ishness, and yet such has often been done. Nothing but reliable, tested 
thermometers should be used in this important work. Several should be 
used and placed in different parts of the orchard, as there may be quite 
a temperature variation in a short distance. Electric alarms may be 
used, but it is more satisfactory in actual practice to have reliable men 
to watch the thermometers and record temperatures every few minutes 
during the time of expected freeze. 

SUCCESS MEANS HARD WORK. 

Our present knowledge of frost fighting with orchard heaters is not 
such that it can be recommended under all conditions. With the tem- 
peratures that we usually have during the period of spring freezes in 
California, it is safe to say that the man who is willing to observe all 
the details, and who is not afraid of the hardest kind of work, will suc- 
ceed. Not every man who has orchard heaters does, neither does every 
man who sprays make a success of that operation. Orchard heating, if 
it is done at all, should be done rightly, or else all labor and expense may 
lie thrown away. No one who is looking only for the easy jobs should 
have anvthing to do with this work. 



APPLE GROWING IX CALIFORNIA. ID 



CHAPTER XIII. 

SPRAYING THE APPLE. 

Whether it is generally believed or not, it is nevertheless true that 
an exceedingly heavy loss in apples each season could be largely pre- 
vented by proper spraying, and while there are many orchardists who 
spray intelligently and who get results, there are others who spray 
with little or no knowledge of the diseases or insect pests of their trees, 
and little more of the sprays that they are using. The first thing that 
the apple grower should do, if he would make the greatest success of 
his business, is to familiarize himself with these pests and diseases. 
It may seem to him that this is the work of an expert and he should 
not be expected to know anything about it. There is no question but 
that the expert's advice and help should be solicited, but after all every 
one must know his own orchard, and with the help of such expert 
advice as he may be able to get, and through reading, it should be pos- 
sible to learn everything that need be known about the insects and 
diseases, so that intelligent methods may be used for their control. 

There are too many apple growers spraying for codling moth, not 
even knowing where the eggs of the adult insect are laid or what they 
look like ; there is too much spraying for the control of the various 
species of plant lice without a thorough knowledge of their life habits ; 
and the same thing holds true in relation to apple scab, mildew and 
other affections of the orchard. To illustrate, I have talked with 
seemingly intelligent growers who thought that the arsenate of lead 
applied for the control of codling moth would kill the eggs. Such 
ignorance as this is. of course, not met with as a rule among our fruit 
growers, for it may be said to their great credit that there are no more 
intelligent people to be found in any other line of work; but one can 
not conceive of such lack of knowledge in regard to a pest upon which 
volumes have been written and with which every field expert in an apple 
section is familiar. 

The writer is not a believer in promiscuous hit or miss spraying, done 
usually because some one else is doing likewise, or because some one said 
that the trees needed treatment, without any knowledge of what was 
on them. The time to spray an apple orchard is when there is some- 
thing on the trees that can be controlled by the spray. It is all very 
well to talk about preventive measures, but spraying an orchard for 
woolly aphis with a nicotine solution, or with some other contact spray, 
will do no good for the control of this pest, unless it is actually present. 
There can be no preventive effect in this case and yet w T e often hear 
people say: "Well, I had no pests on these trees but just sprayed to 
prevent them from coming." Again, there could be no possible value 
of an arsenical spray for codling moth unless the pest was actually 
present in the orchard. There are isolated orchards of a considerable 
age where this pest has never occurred, and it would be the merest 
folly to attempt to prevent its coming by any spraying methods. There 
are also young orchards in sections where codling moth is present that 
may not be troubled for a few years, and there can be nothing accom- 
plished in spraying them until the moth arrives. It is always a good 



76 APPLE GROWING IN CALIFORNIA. 

thing to keep ahead of the various pests and spray before they become 
too bad, but spraying costs money, so much that it is often done poorly 
in an attempt to save material, and too much emphasis can not be 
placed upon the necessity for orchardists acquiring sufficient knowledge 
of the various pests and diseases, so that they may know when spraying 
need not be done, or when it must be done in order to best protect the 
trees or crops. Because of the lack of knowledge in this work many 
have advocated a certain course of spraying to be given each season 
regardless of condition of the orchard or its previous record with 
respect to the pests. There may be sections where such a course can 
be outlined and followed out to advantage, but orchards differ as do 
individuals or groups of individuals, and what one requires may be 
absolutely unnecessary for another, so after all the owner must study 
his orchard and learn to know for himself what is best for it. 

Failure to control the various pests of the orchard when certain of 
them are present and when the right kind of an insecticide or fungi- 
cide is used, is more often due to lack of thoroughness in the applica- 
tion than to everything else. The writer has heard orchardists, time 
and again, condemn certain sprays as being poor when they themselves 
were to blame for the poor results attained. At one time an orchardist 
had sprayed some young apple trees with Black Leaf "40," — 1-1000 — 
for the control of the green aphis and when he got through the trees 
were still badly infested. He immediately complained that the material 
used was not good. An investigation of the orchard showed that quite a 
large percentage of the aphids had been killed but that there were 
still enough left so that without further spraying nothing of value 
Avould have been accomplished. For the purpose of a demonstration a 
few trees were re-sprayed with a drenching rather than a light appli- 
cation. In this case practically one hundred per cent of the lice were 
killed, proving that the spray was good but that the methods of appli- 
cation were faulty. When we stop to think that in cases of this kind 
the time and material is often thrown away, whereas a little more care 
and a little greater thoroughness, although it will cost more, will bring 
results, there is little excuse for hasty, careless work. While it is 
possibly not a good thing to advocate as a general practice, it is usually 
better, from a financial standpoint, to spray one half of an orchard 
very thoroughly than to spray the whole thing for possibly the same 
cost and slight the work. In the first case a good crop of apples may 
be harvested from half the orchard, while in the second the loss may 
be total. 

A few years ago the writer sprayed a part of a very old apple orchard 
in southern Maryland, which had not received a spray for a long time, 
and possibly never. The apples for years past had dropped from fung- 
ous and codling moth attack. In this case probably not over one third 
of the orchard was sprayed, by the use of a barrel pump and an ox 
team, but for the first time in years it produced salable fruit which 
sold for a big price, but only the sprayed trees had good fruit. This 
was a most striking example of the possibility of protecting even a 
small part of an orchard by heavy spraying. When negligent orchard 
owners can be made to see the value of heavy spraying by starting 
in first on a small portion of the orchard for economy's sake, such work 
will often lead to the same kind of spraying over large areas. 



APPLE GROWING IN CALIFORNIA. I i 

Thoroughness in spraying implies good spraying machinery and 
equipment. The day of the barrel pump is practically over as far as 
the commercial orchardist is concerned, and the man who owns five 
acres of apples needs a power sprayer. For a smaller acreage the 
barrel or tank pumps may still be used, but only by exercising the 
greatest of care can they be made to do the work as thoroughly and as 
effectively as the power outfit. Our modern power sprayers have 
revolutionized the spraying business and have made it possible to 
handle a much greater acreage during the period when spraying can 
be most effectively done, and if any criticism is to be made of these 
machines it would be that the high degree of efficiency which they 
possess is sometimes depended upon too much and the men, trusting to 
the machine to do it all, become careless. While it is true that with 
the high pressure which it is possible to attain trees may be very 
quickly sprayed, there is a tendency to hurry too much and the work 
is slighted. 

Most of our power sprayers will maintain a pressure of two hun- 
dred pounds with ease, while with the old fashioned barrel pump or 
the later tank pump eighty to one hundred pounds was considered 
good. Thorough work may be clone with this lower pressure, but the 
time required and the care necessary are greatly increased. It is, 
however, advantageous to have the higher pressure in the case of con- 
trol work for most of the insects of the apple. 

There are many good types of spraying machines on the market and 
individual likes will determine which is to be purchased. A machine 
should be equipped with two long lines of hose, at least fifty feet each, 
and rods at least eight feet in length. The long hose will enable one 
to get around trees handily and the long rods will greatly facilitate the 
work of spraying. Of utmost importance in the equipment are good 
nozzles. No machine can be expected to do the best work without them. 

THE PIPING SYSTEM FOR SPRAYING. 

The great success of the piping system used by a few California 
•orchard growers indicates the possibility of this latest method of dis- 
tributing and applying the sprays to our trees coming into general 
use. Under this system the portable tank with attached pump and 
gasoline engine is done away with and instead there is installed, at a 
convenient place in the orchard, stationary mixing tanks for the spray 
material and a system of pumps which forces the spray under pressure 
through leads of half inch galvanized iron pipes buried at a convenient 
depth and convenient intervals throughout the orchard. Standpipes 
for the attachment of the hose are connected to the underground sys- 
tem at such distances apart as are necessary. The initial cost of such a 
system is, of course, considerable, and not every orchardist can afford 
its installation. The great saving in time and labor during the work 
of spraying, the ability to spray an orchard when the ground is wet, 
and the possibility of so much more effective work, make the system 
one to be recommended. 

Instead of the pipes being placed permanently below ground as in 
the Hay ward Keed system, used in his pear orchard near Sacramento, 
a modification of this system may be used. At Watsonville the latter 
may be seen in operation and consists of suitable lengths of pipe which 
at the time of spraying are laid on the surface of the ground between 



78 APPLE GROWING IN CALIFORNIA. 

the orchard rows and the liquid spray is pumped through them under 
a high pressure from a central pumping plant located at a well which 
furnishes the water supply. This system is said to work satisfactorily. 

It is the firm belief of the writer that the future will see a great 
many of our better orchards sprayed by the piping system. The gaso- 
line power outfit, while we must recognize it as being an effective 
piece of machinery, has its drawbacks and its limitations. An engine 
mounted on a truck pulled over rough ground and often drenched with 
caustic sprays can not be kept in the very best working order and often 
the fluctuation in pressure is responsible for variable results in spray- 
ing. With the piping system engines and pumps can be protected in 
the best possible manner, spray materials can be much more conven- 
iently handled, and a great deal of the present dread of spraying may 
be removed. The spraying of large apple trees is not any easy matter 
and requires so much material that one power sprayer is often inade- 
quate to handle more than twenty-five acres, where spraying must of 
necessity be done quickly to get the desired results. For instance, 
the calyx spray for codling moth must be done during a period of 
little more than a week, if complete calyx control be assured. In a 
twenty-five acre apple orchard, with seventy trees to the acre, there 
would be seventeen hundred and fifty trees. If they are large, a two 
hundred gallon tank will not thoroughly spray over fourteen trees; 
that is, one hundred and twenty-five tanks of spray would be required 
for such a twenty-five acre orchard. It is considered to be a good day's 
work to put on ten tanks of spray, so twelve and one half days at this 
rate would be required to spray twenty-five acres. It is with a full 
realization of being disputed and possibly ridiculed for these figures 
that they are published, but it is only asked that a careful investigation 
of the many failures to get results in spraying be carefully made by 
those who would disbelieve them, and a full assurance of their approxi- 
mate correctness is undoubted. 

Before closing this chapter on spraying, a few words, treating of 
the importance of the "man behind the gun" should not be omitted, 
for the very best equipment may be of little value with careless, irre- 
sponsible men entrusted with the work of spraying. The most impor- 
tant men in a spraying crew are those who hold the rods and direct the 
spray upon the trees. Their sight must be keen, they must be active 
and alert, and they can not be thinking of other things continually 
and do a good job of spraying, for this usually means the thorough 
wetting of every portion of a tree; and how easy it is to slight the 
work just enough to defeat the object of the spray. Men who hold 
-pray rods should be gifted with enough intelligence, at least, so that 
they could be made to know that upon the manner in which they do 
their work will depend the success or failure of the spraying operation. 

Recently while watching some Chinamen spray an orchard for the 
control of codling moth, it was noticed that they had no conception 
of thoroughness and apparently no realization of the important part 
they were playing in the work. Upon trying to explain to them that 
the work should be more thoroughly done they seemed quite indignant 
that any one from the outside should attempt to show them anything. 
If this important job must be entrusted to the poorest among unskilled 
laborers, their instructions should at least be so complete that the work 
might not suffer. 



APPLE GROWING IN CALIFORNIA. 79 



CHAPTER XIV. 



INSECT PESTS OF THE APPLE. 

CODLING MOTH. 

As failure to control the codling moth means failure to make a 
financial success of the apple business, a full discussion of this most 
serious of all apple pests seems necessary in a work of this nature. 

The annual loss in fruit from this pest is tremendous and could we 
secure accurate figures they would be startling. Practically every apple 
grower has at some time or other paid it toll in apples destroyed, and 
others have allowed their crops to go year after year without making 
any effort to save them. Despite the fact that it is so- common and so 
destructive a pest, it is one that is largely under our control and any 
orchardist who is willing to use brains in fighting it is going to meet 
with success. It is true, however, that the codling moth sometimes gets 
so bad in a locality that one or two seasons of most careful and heavy 
spraying are needed to reduce its numbers to a point where control will 
be comparatively easy. Again, its control may in some cases be a com- 
munity problem, where all must join in the fight if they would succeed 
themselves or protect their neighbors. It is not known just how far the 
moths will fly, but surely from an orchard on one side of a road to one 
on the other. Thus one may have to fight harder because of the negli- 
gence of a neighbor who fails to spray. 

How the Pest Spends the Winter. 

A knowledge of the wintering habits of an insect is sometimes a 
valuable thing in connection with its control. In this case we have a 
pest that winters in such a way that something, but not all, may be done 
toward its control during the winter or dormant season. After the full 
grown second brood larva? leave the apples in the fall or winter they 
secrete themselves under the loose bark of trees in the orchard, in cracks 
between boards in packing or storage houses, in fact almost anywhere 
that they can find hiding places. As a majority of the wormy apples 
usually fall to the ground before picking time, the worms in them that 
may escape can readily reach trees where hiding places may be found. 
Very frequently, however, they leave the apples while they are still 
hanging to the trees, and crawl down the limbs and trunk until suitable 
quarters are discovered. When such are found the larva? immediately 
begin the construction of little cocoons of silk, which when completed 
form a protection against the weal her and enemies that might prey upon 
them. In this cocoon they remain as full grown apple worms or larva? 
throughout the entire winter season, and never can they be found in 
any other stage during this time. By scraping off the loose bark on 
old trees, in particular, frequently large numbers of these hibernating 
larva? may be destroyed. Such should always be done when an attempt 
is being made to control the pest in an orchard or collection of orchards, 
where spraying has been neglected until the codling moth has become so 
abundant as to make spraying work more or less ineffective. 



80 APPLE GROWING IN CALIFORNIA. 

The natural mortality due to weather conditions during the winter 
time is sometimes great, but varies from season to season. The numbers 
that survive until spring to develop into moths have an important bear- 
ing on the ease or difficulty with which this insect may be controlled. 
If a winter season is such that seventy-five per cent of the worms which 
began hibernation in the fall transform, the females to lay eggs in the 
spring, it would be expected that a much more serious condition would 
result, providing no spraying were done, than if only ten per cent had 
lived through. As the number of larva? that are present in the spring 
will determine largely the number of applications of spray that are 
necessary, and as a superabundance may mean the loss of a great many 
apples, no matter how carefully the work of spraying is done, too much 
attention cannot be paid to destroying the larvae during the winter 
season, beneath bands put on trees as traps in the summer, and in every 
way possible to reduce their numbers to the minimum. 

The Pupal Stage. 

When the warm weather of spring comes on the larvae which have 
survived the winter begin to pupate, and in the cocoons may be found 
little brown, footless, quiescent creatures, not able to move about, and 
aside from a slight movement of the portion corresponding to the abdo- 
men of the adult which will soon emerge, they are immobile. This stage 
may last several weeks in the spring, but in the case of first brood 
pupae it averages about two weeks. From this stage there develops the 
mature winged moths, the females of which, after mating, begin egg 
laying. 

The Moth Stage. 

No orchardist who grows apples can reasonably find any excuse for 
not knowing the appearance of the codling moth, and yet there are those 
who are apt to mistake almost any kind of a common cutworm moth for 
this destructive species. A few mature larvae or pupae, collected and 
put in a pasteboard box any time during the spring or summer season, 
will develop into moths and the characteristic appearance may then be 
noted. They are gray in color with distinct yellowish, almost gold 
colored spots near the tips of fore wings and a wing expanse of not over 
three fourths of an inch. The characteristic yellow markings make this 
species readily distinguishable from practically all others, and yet we 
find men who should know better, trapping moths by lights, mostly cut- 
worm species, and claiming that they are destroying the codling moths. 

The Egg Stage. 

Contrary to the general opinion codling moth eggs are not hard to 
find when one learns what they look like and where to look for them. 
They are laid singly on the foliage or fruit, and rarely on the twigs. If 
found on the former, in practically every case they will be found on the 
upper or smooth surface of a leaf and almost always close to an apple 
or cluster of apples. The moths seem to possess an instinct which 
prompts them to lay these eggs where the little worms, upon hatching 
from them, will have little trouble in locating some of their food — the 
fruit. In shape the eggs are almost circular and very flat, adhering 
closely to the surface of a leaf, or apple. The diameter is about that 
of the head of an ordinary pin. On the surface there is more or less 



APPLE GROWING IN CALIFORNIA. 81 

of a wrinkled or roughened appearance. The color at first is creamy 
white. In a few days — three or four — a reddish ring may he plainly 
seen within the shell. This ring marks the position of the embryonic 
larva developing within. Before hatching, which normally takes place 
about the seventh day. there may he seen a black spot near one side of 
the egg. This spot is simply the black head of the little worm within 
and indicates that hatching time has arrived. The thin white shells of 
hatched eggs may cling to leaves or fruit for some time and can be seen 
in any orchard where codling moth is at all bad, during the summer 
season. 

Control. 

A very large per cent of the first brood larva 1 begin feeding in the 
calyx end of the apple, the number varying somewhat with seasons, 
locality and variety, and estimated by scientific workers to be from 
seventy-five to ninety-five per cent of the total brood. In the case of 
the second brood quite a large percentage also enters the calyx, but as 
the fruit is large when they come on there is a better chance for the 
little worms to enter elsewhere, and quite a good many bore into the 
fruit through the stem cavity or somewhere on the side. This fact, 
coupled with the important one bearing on it, that sprays must be 
applied to coat the entire surfaces of the apples, makes it of the utmost 
importance to devote every energy toward killing practically the entire 
first brood, so that the second as a consequence must be small. 

The fact that so great a percentage of the first brood of worms seeks 
the calyx as soon as hatched has resulted in the standard method of 
control for this pest, viz : a heavy spraying with some arsenical insecti- 
cide when the petals are practically all off and before the calyx lobes 
have closed. 

Spray to Use. 

The most satisfactory and widely used arsenical spray for codling 
moth is arsenate of lead. It is made in both the paste and powdered 
form, the first mentioned being used more generally than the second. 
Other arsenicals that may be substituted for the arsenate of lead are 
arsenite of zinc and Paris green. The arsenite of zinc is a good poison, 
but has not given general satisfaction because of its liability to burn 
fruit and foliage. It is, however, used considerably for the first or calyx 
spraying, as little damage seems to result from its application at this 
time. Later applications are dangerous. Paris green, when substituted 
for these others, should be applied with milk of lime in small quantities, 
to prevent burning. 

Strength of Spray. 

Arsenate of lead in the paste form should contain from 12 to 17 per 
cent arsenic oxide. Three or four pounds of this paste to 100 gallons of 
water is of sufficient strength to kill the larva 1 . It is probably a good 
plan to increase the strength somewhat for the later sprayings, applied 
for the purpose of coating the fruit, The powdered form of lead 
arsenate contains about double the amount of arsenic oxide per pound, 
hence only one half as much is necessary for a given amount of water. 
The same is true of zinc arsenite. Paris green should be used at the 
strength of one and one half pounds to 200 gallons of water, with the 
addition of about ten pounds of strained milk of lime. 

6 — 13683 



82 



APPLE GROWING IN CALIFORNIA. 



The strength of spray to use as given in this publication is less than 
the manufacturers of arsenicals usually recommend. It has been proven 
by careful experiments that the amount given is ample and special 
emphasis should be laid upon the necessity of putting the spray where 
it belongs. It matters not how strong a spray is used, it can do no good 
unless it is placed where the worms will feed upon it. Time and 
again in the writer's experience have orchardists been known to condemn 
the spray as faulty, when they themselves were to blame because of 
their careless methods of application. 

How to Apply Spray. 

It seems almost superfluous to say anything about how to apply a 
spray, but after all there is much to learn before the beginner can become 
expert. The tendency is always to use too little spray, thus slighting the 
work. In making the application for codling moth, thoroughness is the 
keynote to success and anything that will bring it about is desirable. 




Fig. 4S. — Apples on the left just r'grht to spray; r al lr ces are too nearly closed on 
apples shown on right for the most effective work. (After Quaintance) 

Only the most careful help should be engaged, and men should be 
trained to do the work so that, when a tree is finished, they know that 
they have sprayed it from every angle. This necessitates walking 
entirely around a tree. Spraying that is done from one side only 
cannot be thorough and is of little real value. There is a tendency for 
sprayers to hold the nozzle too close to the limbs and, as a consequence, 
the tips are very often missed. While a tree must be sprayed on the 
inside, it must not be neglected on the outside, and by holding the 
nozzle two or three feet back from the extremities of the longest 
branches, as the tree is encircled during spraying, there can be little of 
the surface missed. In all spraying work for coddling moth the appa- 
ratus should be of the best. Long rods with forty-five degree angles on 
the tips, and a driving spray with high pressure, will greatly facilitate 
the work. 

First Spraying. 

There are few orchardists who have had experience in spraying for 
the control of this troublesome insect the country over, who will discount 
the value of the calyx spray. This must be applied before the calyx 



APPLE GROWING IN CALIFORNIA. 83 

cups close and fortunately there is a period of a week or more with 
most varieties of apples, after the blossoms fall, when the calyces are 
open, and a few rare cases where they never close tight. Varieties, soil 
;m<! climatic conditions bring about this variation. Knowing that a large 
percentage of the first brood worms enter by way of the calyx, and that 
every one that escapes being killed by the first spray and develops into 
a moth of the second brood — which if a female may lay seventy-five 
eggs to hatch into second brood worms — we cannot be too careful in mak- 
ing the first application. The aim should be to fill every calyx cup with 
the liquid, which, upon evaporating, will leave a deposit of insoluble 
arsenic to remain in and protect the apple throughout the entire season. 
Every sprayer should test the efficiency of his work by examining 
trees, after he thinks they have been well sprayed, and see if there are 
any calyces that are dry and have not been touched by the spray. If 
this is done one will soon realize how exceedingly hard it is to fill every 
cup. As many of the blossoms point upward, spraying from a tower is 
often practiced and is a decided advantage when trees are large. 

As varieties of apples differ as to the time of blooming, there is fre- 
quently trouble experienced in getting the spray on trees of certain 
kinds at the proper time. This trouble is greatly exaggerated in our 
older orchards, where many varieties have been planted and where there 
may be great differences in their blooming habits. It is not serious in 
orchards of large blocks of a few varieties, for those that bloom first can 
be sprayed first and the others will probably be in good condition imme- 
diately afterwards. Climatic conditions are sometimes such that the 
blossoms of a given variety do not come out evenly. Where such is the 
case a double application should be made for the calyx in order that the 
greatest efficiency may result. If this repeat spray is found to be 
necessary it should be applied from a week to ten days after the first 
or regular calyx spray, when the majority of the blossoms have fallen. 

Second Spraying. 

Already two sprayings have been mentioned, but in actual practice 
the second calyx application is not usually found to be necessary. The 
regular second application, which it is never safe to omit if codling moth 
is at all hard to control, should be made about three weeks after the 
first. At this time there may still be a few of the calyces open, and it 
will have some value as a calyx spray. Its chief value lies in the fact 
that it is applied at a time when the worms are beginning their work, 
and many may be killed on the sides of little apples which will, at this 
time, receive a coating of the arsenical. 

Third Spraying. 

A third application two weeks after the second is often desirable to 
supplement the work of the latter. The little apples grow very rapidly 
when they once become set, and difficulty is experienced in keeping a 
protecting coat of spray over a large part of the surface. As the apples 
grow, the individual particles of arsenate of lead become correspond- 
ingly farther apart and the worms have a better chance to gain 
entrance. The third regular application will be put on at a time when 
the hatching of first brood worms is about at its maximum ; hence it 
is a very desirable spray during seasons of an abundance of codling 
moth. 



84 APPLE GROWING IN CALIFORNIA. 

Fourth Spraying. 

Generally speaking, three sprays are sufficient to control the codling' 
moth, provided that they have been rightly timed and thoroughly 
applied. The writer has known of many cases, however, of serious in- 
festation where this spray and another following could be made to pay. 
They are only necessary when the pest becomes overly abundant because 
of previous seasons' neglect. When applied, this spray should be put 
on about fifty days after the second regular application. The latter 
was put on about the time when the first brood of eggs were beginning 
to hatch, and as the second will begin approximately fifty days from 
this time, or in oilier words, as it takes the insect seven weeks to undergo 
all its transformations in a brood, the spray is timed to the hatching of 
the first of the second brood. 

Fifth Spraying. 

This application is simply to supplement the fourth and should be 
applied about two weeks later. Its use will insure a better coating of 
lead arsenate on the apples and thus bring about greater efficiency in 
killing worms. 

Other Control Measures. 

Generally speaking, careful attention to spraying will bring about 
complete control of codling moth. Conditions may become such through 
neglect or otherwise, that something else must be done to reduce the 
numbers of the pest sufficiently for effective spraying. To illustrate, the 
writer once sprayed an orchard where codling moth was so abundant 
that one tree left without spraying had only seventeen per cent of the 
fruit sound at picking time. Five sprayings in this orchard, all heavily 
and carefully done, were necessary, but even after all this spraying a 
considerable percentage of the apples were actually wormy, or were 
specked where worms had attempted to eat in and were killed. In such 
cases as this, cloth bands of burlap or other material, placed about the 
trunks of the trees about June first and removed, and all worms under- 
neath killed every ten days until apples are picked, would result in such 
a reduction of the worms that the second brood would be less trouble- 
some and fewer worms would go into winter quarters. Burlap bands 
should be of three thicknesses, about five inches wide, and may be held 
in place with thumb tacks. 

Removal of rough bark on old trunks is always desirable, as many 
larva? hibernate underneath. 

Packing-houses frequently serve as harboring places for worms, which 
crawl from apples brought in for packing or storage. These may find 
cracks between boards, boxes or rubbish of any kind in which to spin 
cocoons and pass the winter. Screening of such houses to prevent the 
exit of moths in the spring is sometimes desirable. 

APHIDS AFFECTING THE APPLE. 
The Woolly Aphis of the Apple. 

(Erlosoma lanigera.) 
This very common and destructive pest is so well known to every 
apple grower that it hardly seems necessary to go into details regarding 
it. Not only is it common, but it is also one of our hardest pests to 



APPLE GROWING IN CALIFORNIA. 85 

control. Its name is derived from the fact that the purplish body 
of the adult louse is covered with a wool-like, waxy excretion. When 
once an orchard becomes badly infested it is only with extreme difficulty 
that this insect may be checked in its ravages. 

The woolly aphis works both above and below ground. The damage 
to the roots consists in a roughening or knotting of the surface, with 
the result of more or less decay and destruction of fibrous roots in bad 
eases. The winter season is spent by the lice both on the branches and 
trunks above ground and on the roots below the surface. During the 
summer months a migration is taking place from roots to branches and 
vice versa, throughout the time of active feeding, with usually a more 
general migration in the early spring and late fall. One winged gen- 
eration develops during a season, and this in the fall. These winged 
lice are all viviparous females and give birth to sexual males and 
females, the latter of which each deposits a single large egg. It is now 
thought that migration takes place from the apple to the elm, and that 
the eggs are deposited on the latter, 5 as the eggs cannot be found on the 
apple trees, though search has been made for them there time and again. 

Control. 

When damaging trees above ground this aphis, like others of its kind, 
may be readily killed by a spray of Black Leaf "40" and soap, using 
the former at the strength of one gallon to 1000 gallons of water and 
about 5 pounds of soap to 100 gallons of water. They are not at all 
hard to kill with this mixture when it comes in direct contact with their 
bodies. In order to make it do so a high pressure and a driving spray is 
necessary. In small orchards we have known this pest to have been kept 
in check, in the early spring, by the application of coal oil by means of a 
brush, to colonies located in cracks, knot holes, etc., as they colonized 
after migrating from the roots. 

Underground treatment has been on the whole unsatisfactory. In the 
ease of small trees, tobacco dust or a spray of Black Leaf "40" and 
soap to the bared roots may be quite effective. For larger trees the treat- 
ment is not practical, as the aphids follow the roots to their extremities, 
especially if they are shallow. 

Deep rooting of apple trees is desirable, because of the tendency of 
this pest to attack the shallow roots most severely, as well as for other 
good reasons. 

Resistant Varieties. 

Some varieties of trees possess more or less resistance to the attack of 
woolly aphis. The Northern Spy probably is more nearly immune than 
any other variety and for that reason the roots are very often used for 
propagating purposes. 

Natural Enemies. 

Laeewing flies, syrphid flies, and ladybird beetles frequently keep this 
pest in check. There is no more effective predaceous enemy in this 
case than the lacewings, and exceedingly bad infestations over large 
areas have been seen destroyed in a couple of weeks time by them. A 
little internal parasite. apht Hints mali, is sometimes a considerable factor 
in its control. 



°See Bui. 217, Maine Exp. Sta. — Edith M. Patch. 



86 APPLE GROWING IN CALIFORNIA. 

The Green Apple Aphis. 
(Aphis pomi. > 

The little shiny black, oblong eggs on the new growth of apple twigs 
during the winter season, have been seen by practically every apple 
orchardist. These are the eggs of the green apple aphis, laid there by 
a small green plant louse in the fall. As the buds begin to open in the 
spring these eggs hatch and the little dark green colored lice immediately 
begin feeding upon the new growth. These first spring lice, which 
hatched from the overwintering eggs, are known as stem-mothers. 
When they become mature after a couple of weeks of feeding they give 
birth to living young of a second generation. These in turn do likewise, 
and a number of generations are developed throughout the season. 
Many individuals after the second generation develop wings, and thus 
may fly about from tree to tree and orchard to orchard, spreading the 
infestation. In the fall true males and females are developed. These 
are wingless and may be distinguished from the agamic forms by their 
color, which is yellow instead of dark i>reen. The females deposit the 
eggs previously described. Their injury is done principally to the 
leaves, although in bad cases the fruit and even tender twigs may be 
attacked. The sap is sucked from the parts upon which feeding takes 
place. A curling of the leaves is a good sign of the presence of this in- 
sect. Ants feed abundantly upon the excrement or honeydew, and are 
always present in annoying numbers when infestation occurs. Pear, 
quince and hawthorn are subject to attack, as well as the apple. 

A thorough spraying with Black Leaf "40" and soap, at the strength 
recommended for woolly aphis, or distillate or oil emulsion in the spring 
when eggs are hatching, is effective. Any of these sprays may be used 
later in the season to advantage. Lime sulphur, 1 part to 10 parts of 
water, is supposed to possess some virtue as a dormant spray for the eggs. 
Observations made in Colorado by the writer did not justify its use. 
except when it was put on just as the eggs were beginning to hatch 
early in the spring. If applied before hatching time it may have some 
virtue, but results attained have been variable. 

The Purple Apple Aphis. 

(.Aphis sorbi.) 

This is without doubt the most serious aphid pest of the apple, as far 
as their effect upon the fruit is concerned. Like the green apple aphis, 
they spend the winter in the form of small black eggs on apple trees, 
which hatch very early in the spring. Almost before the buds have 
begun to swell perceptibly, the little blackish colored lice may be seen 
hanging on the outside waiting for them to open. Feeding begins imme- 
diately upon the bursting of the buds. After about three weeks' time 
these stem-mothers have become mature and reproduction without egg- 
laying begins. 

The second generation is purplish in color, the lice being covered with 
a powdery secretion. Feeding takes place very generally on the leaves, 
close to the clusters of youn<i' apples, and more rarely on the apples 
themselves, which are injured to such an extent that they become stunted 
and not only fail to mature, but are distorted so badly that the variety 
niav not be recognizable. 



APPLE GROWING IN CALIFORNIA. Hi 

During 1 the month of -June, according 1 to 0. E. Bremner, wings are 
developed and a migration takes place from the apple to some interme- 
diate host, which has no1 yet been discovered. The writer has observed 
this habit of the louse in Colorado, and H. F. Wilson reports that a 
similar migration takes place in Oregon. Mr. Bremner. who has done 
more work on this species in California than any one else, states that 
he has found the aphis on careless weed (Amarantus retro fie xus), but 
does not report having found it colonizing or feeding upon this plant. 

In the fall winged lice return to the apple and produce sexual forms, 
the females of which lay eggs for the perpetuation of the species. 

Control. 

The very early hatching of the eggs makes it necessary that a spring 
treatment for this pest be made accordingly. The writer has found 
hatched lice of this species in February in Colorado, and there are no 
doubt seasons in California when just as early hatching would take 
place. Professor Wilson reports finding them in Oregon as early as 
February 22d, in 11)12. The stem-mothers become quite resistant to 
contact sprays as they approach maturity ; also, because of the protec- 
tion of foliage at this time, spraying is often done with very poor suc- 
cess. The ideal time to spray is just as the eggs are through hatching, 
and while no date can be set, the time will conform closely to that of the 
swelling of the buds. Such work should not be neglected until the 
blossoms begin to appear, as this is too late for the best results. 

Professor Wilson recommends an early spring treatment with a combi- 
nation of lime sulphur and Black Leaf "40." Mr. Bremner has had 
splendid success with fall treatments when the sexual forms of the lice 
are present, using a crude oil emulsion formula which is made as follows : 

"Place 88 gallons of Avater in the spray tank and add 1 to 2 
gallons liquid soap, depending on the softness of the water used, 
diluted with about an equal amount of water. Agitate until 
thoroughly mixed and then with the agitator running add 10 gal- 
lons of crude oil." 

A second formula recommended by Mr. Bremner follows : 

"Dissolve 10 pounds of whale oil soap in not less than 10 gallons 
of Avater by boiling ; slice the soap and it will dissolve more quickly. 
Place this in the spray tank, which should contain about 10 gallons 
of Avater. Thoroughly agitate and add enough water to make 90 
gallons, then add 2 pounds of caustic socla (concentrated lye), dis- 
solved in water. With the agitator running add 10 gallons of crude 
oil slowly." 

Either formula is said to be effective and spraying should be done 
about November 25th in the Sebastopol section, where Mr. Bremner did 
his work. 

Other Species of Apple Plant Lice. 

The three species already treated are the only ones of any importance 
that have been taken on apple in California. Occassionally other species 
are found in limited numbers. C. P. Gillette and E. P. Taylor, in 
Bui. 133 of the Colorado Experiment Station, and H. F. Wilson in the 
Biennial Crop Pest and Horticultural Report, 1911-1912, of the Oregon 



88 APPLE GROWING IN CALIFORNIA. 

Agricultural College and Experiment Station, mention the European 
grain aphis (Aphis avence) and the clover aphis (Aphis bakeri) as being 
of more or less importance. These species are not commonly found on 
apple in California. The melon aphis (Aphis gossypii) and the sweet 
clover aphis (Aphis medicaginis) are occassionally taken on apple, but 
are never serious. 

MISCELLANEOUS APPLE PESTS. 
Apple Tree Leaf- Hopper. 
(Empoasca malt.) 
Infested leaves appear more or less mottled with whitish markings, 
similar to those injured by mites. An examination of such leaves will 
disclose the fact that little white bodied, sucking insects are feeding 
underneath. These hatch from eggs laid in the bark of young growth. 
Wings are developed during the season and upon the slightest disturb- 
ance to the trees the insects take flight, and when infestation is bad 
swarms of them may be seen in the air. 

A spray of Black Leaf "40," 1 to 1000 and soap, to kill the larva?, is 
effective. Essig recommends whale oil soap. 1 pound to 8 gallons, or 
oil emulsions. 

San Jose Scale. 
(Aspidiotus perniciosus. ) 

This scale insect is more commonly found than any other on apple 
trees in California. It is very easily recognized, because of the fact that 
it causes small red spots to appear on the bark and fruit wherever it 
attaches itself. The scale covering varies from gray in the larger speci- 
mens to sooty black in the smaller. Underneath these scale coverings 
may be seen the little yellow bodies of the insects themselves, which live 
by sucking sap from the bark through their little beaks by which they 
are attached to the twigs. The pest winters in different stages of 
growth. It may be controlled by a spray of either lime-sulphur or an 
oil emulsion during the dormant season. 

Oyster Shell Scale. 

( Lepidosaphes ulmi.) 

This scale was so named because of the fact that the covering is shaped 
somewhat like an oyster shell. During the winter season an examination 
will disclose the fact that there are a great number of little white eggs 
underneath the scale coverings. These hatch in the early spring, the 
little scales immediately attaching themselves either to the foliage or 
bark, where feeding begins. Lime-sulphur is recommended as a spray 
during the dormant season to control this insect. It is also readily held 
in check by means of oil emulsion sprays, just as the eggs are hatching 
in the spring. 

The Scurfy Scale. 
( Chionaspis furfnra. ) 

This species may lie distinguished by the dirty white scale coverings 
on the bark. Underneath these may be seen the purple bodies of the 
insects, or eggs of the same color. 

Dormant sprays of either lime-sulphur or oil emulsions are used with 
success. 



APPLE GROWING IN CALIFORNIA. 89 

Apple Tree Leaf Roller. 
(Archips argyrospila.) 

In The Monthly Bulletin, Vol. II, No. 9, of the State Commission of 
Horticulture, the author published an illustrated article on this pest, 
telling of its habits and occurrence in the state. The adult is a yellow 
moth about the size of the codling moth, with white markings. Eggs 
are laid in oval shaped masses, each containing from ten to one hundred 
and fifty eggs, on the limbs and trunk in July. These hatch in the 
spring as buds are opening and the little whitish larva? immediately 
begin feeding and, if plentiful, serious destruction of blossoms and 
defoliation of trees may result. 

When full grown or about three fourths inch in length the larvae 
pupate, mostly in the rolled leaves, though frequently elsewhere. 

Complete control may be brought about by an early spring applica- 
tion of either a miscible oil spray or crude oil emulsion to kill the eggs. 

Apple Tree Tent Caterpillars. 
(Malacosoma disstria and Malacosoma americana.) 

The former is the common species in California. Both may be 
recognized by the large web tents which are made where the colonies 
feed, after hatching from eggs which were deposited by the moths on 
the twigs the previous fall. These eggs are laid in masses encircling 
the twigs and are easily recognized from those of other pests because 
of this fact. Feeding usually takes place by the hairy caterpillars in 
quite definite areas within and surrounding the tents. 

Control measures consist in removal of the egg masses when trees are 
being pruned in the dormant season, destruction of the web tents with 
the larva? enclosed in the early morning or late in the evening, and 
arsenical sprays. Where spraying is done to control codling moth 
this pest is also satisfactorily controlled. 

Tussock Moth. 
(Hemerocampa retusta.) 

Considerable injury is sometimes done to young apples by tussock 
moth larva?, and mature fruits are often seen in the packing-houses 
which show the scars due to this early injury. 

Like the canker worm moths, the females of this species are wingless. 
The winter season is spent on the trees in the egg stage, in masses 
protected by the cocoons from which the female moths emerged. 

The larva? are quite resistant to an arsenate of lead spray, but 
arsenite of zinc is said to be somewhat more effective. Sticky bands 
are often used about the trunks of the trees to keep larva 3 , which are 
shaken to the ground by jarring, from crawling back. 

Spring and Fall Canker Worms. 
(Paleacrita oernata and Alsophila pometaria.) 
These two species of moths are very similar in appearance, both 
being wingless and depositing their eggs on almost any portion of the 
tree after crawling up the trunk. The larva? are some of the so-called 
measuring worms, the spring species having only two pairs of prolegs 
while the fall species has three. Otherwise they are very similar. 
There is only one generation of each during the season. The spring 



90 APPLE GROWING IN CALIFORNIA. 

species winters over in the pupal stage in the soil while the fall species 
spends the winter on the trees in the egg stage. The fact that the 
female moths arc wingless and can not fly into the trees makes it pos- 
sible to control this pest perfectly by means of a band of some sticky 
preparation applied to the trunks. Arsenate of lead as used for the 
codling moth is of some value in controlling it. Black Leaf "40" at 
the strength of 1 part to 1000 parts of water has also been successfully 
used for both the spring and fall species. 

The Red-Humped Caterpillar. 

( Schizura concinna . ) 

The foilage of the apple is frequently attacked by communistic cater- 
pillars, with red heads and large red humps on the first segment of the 
abdomen. Many prominent black spines along with this peculiar hump 
render the species very conspicuous. The adult is a brownish moth, 
which lays its eggs on the leaves. The winter is spent in the pupal 
stage in the ground. 

Control measures consist of picking the caterpillars from the trees 
and spraying with arsenate of lead. 

Climbing Cutworms. 

Quite frequently in the early spring, buds of young apple trees are 
hollowed out by some species of climbing cutworm, of which there are 
several. This trouble is usually worse on sandy soil than on any other 
kind. Damage from this pest may be eliminated by means of cotton 
batting bands tied about the trees, over which the worms are unable 
to crawl. The method of using a cotton batting band is as follows: 
Take a band of the batting about three inches wide, and of sufficient 
length to go around the tree. After placing about the trunk, tie it 
near the bottom with a piece of twine, pulling the top portion down- 
ward, thus forming a collar which the worms do not penetrate. During 
the day time they may often be found in the soil near the crowns of 
the trees. 

Flat-Headed Apple-Tree Borer. 

( Chrysobothris femorata. ) 

Sun scalded or otherwise injured trees are liable to attack from this 
borer. The adult is a flat metallic colored beetle, which lays its eggs 
on the trees. Upon hatching from these eggs the footless larva 1 , with 
body widened in front and tapering to the posterior extremity, feed 
in the sapwood, often completely girdling a tree. Quite frequently 
burrowing into the heartwood takes place. 

There is no practical means of control. Preventive measures con- 
sist entirely of keeping trees in a thrifty growing condition. 

The Brown Mite. 
( Bryobia pratensis.) 

While there are other mites that occasionally feed on apple foliage, 
this species is the one most commonly found. The little red eggs are 
deposited in the crotches and frequently about the buds of trees during 
the fall or late summer season. These remain unhatched throughout 
the winter. In the early spring, as the foliage begins to come out, the 
eggs hatch and the little mites, which are red at first, begin feeding 



APPLE GROWING IN CALIFORNIA. . 91 

almost immediately. At this time they have only six legs, the fourth 
pair being developed as soon as they moult for the first tunc, and the 
color changes from red to greenish. There are several generations 
during the summer season, but usually the mites do not become abund- 
ant enough to seriously damage the apple trees. 

Lime-sulphur, applied at the .strength of 1 part to 10 parts of water, 
during the dormant season, just before the buds begin to swell, is an 
effective remedy. Either atomic or milled sulphur, during the summer 
season while feeding is going on, is also valuable in controlling it. 
Sulphur in any form is a good mite remedy as a general rule. 

Blister Mite. 

(Eriopliyes pyri.) 

While this is primarily a pear pest it is sometimes found injuring 
apple foliage, also, to a considerable extent. It may be recognized by the 
blister-like patches on the surface of the leaves. The winter season 
is spent under the bud scales of both apple and pear. In the early 
spring the mites leave their hibernating quarters, the females deposit- 
ing eggs in the leaves, from which hatch the tiny larva?, which im- 
mediately begin feeding and produce the characteristic appearance 
already mentioned. This pest may be controlled by an application of 
lime-sulphur just as the buds are beginning to open in the early spring. 



92 APPLE GROWING IN CALIFORNIA. 



CHAPTER XV. 



DISEASES OF THE APPLE. 

BLIGHT. 

(Bacillus amylovorus) 

This disease affects some varieties of the apple as badly as it does 
the pear, and when trees in an orchard become affected the same reme- 
dial measures must be applied as in the case of the latter, viz, pruning 
out all diseased wood in roots, trunks and branches, being sure to cut 
well below where any signs of the disease are noticed; and carefully 
disinfecting all tools and cut surfaces with corrosive sublimate solution, 
1 to 1000, after every cut. 

OAK ROOT FUNGUS. 

(.Armiliaria mellea.) 

Quite frequently apple trees are found rotted in the roots and at 
the crown by this serious disease. The writer has in mind one orchard 
visited early last spring, where tree after tree was diseased with this 
fungus. Oaks had been growing on the land previous to the time of 
apple tree planting and the stumps were still standing throughout the 
orchard in many places. Surrounding these stumps a number of trees 
were frequently found to be affected and great masses of toadstools, the 
fruiting bodies of the fungus, were growing about the stumps and 
apple trees. There is no cure known for this disease. 

APPLE SCAB. 
( Venturia inasqualis. ) 

The very destructive and commonly distributed disease known as 
apple scab is familiar to practically every apple grower, and during 
certain seasons a heavy loss is sustained from it, if nothing in the way 
of spraying is done to control the fungus. 

It has a preference for certain varieties, others being more or less 
resistant. The Yellow Newtown is one of the most susceptible to attack, 
and spraying of orchards consisting of this variety should never be 
neglected in sections where scab is prevalent. The Esopus is also very 
susceptible in California, as well as many other varieties that might be 
mentioned. Locality, of course, has considerable influence upon this 
trouble, and in general the high altitude orchards in California suffer 
most. 

Fig. 49 illustrates the appearance of this disease as it occurs on the 
fruit, the well defined, grayish scabby patches, more or less roughened 
where the skin has been broken through, being characteristic of the 
advanced stage of the disease. 

This disease is due to a fungous organism which winters on the tree 
and on fallen foliage. The plowing under of the leaves, before the 
spores have a chance to get into the trees in the spring, is one of the 
important things in connection with its control. 



APPLE GROWING IN CALIFORNIA. 



93 



Spraying with some good fungicide must not be neglected. An early 
spring application of lime-sulphur at the dormant strength, or of 
Bordeaux mixture, applied as the buds are swelling, should he made. 
This should he followed by later applications, which may be combined 
with the arsenical sprays for codling moth, being careful that com- 
patible mixtures are used. Either Bordeaux mixture or lime-sulphur 
with neutral arsenate of lead, according to Geo. P. Gray of the State 
University of California, may be safely used, or Bordeaux with either 
the acid or neutral arsenate of lead. Zinc arsenite should not be used 
with either Bordeaux or lime-sulphur. 




Fig. 49. — Rhode Island Greening affected with apple scab. (Original) 



CROWN GALL. 

( Bacterium tumefaciens. ) 

This is a very common disease of the apple, often found on nursery 
trees, and sometimes becoming so abundant that great numbers of them 
have to be destroyed. Trees with this disease, if planted in the orchard, 
may live for years, but are usually stunted and never develop into the 
best type of trees. 

The cause of this affection is known to be a bacterium, which often 
enters through a wound, thus starting the disease, which manifests itself 
in swellings or galls. These occur on the crowois of trees, as well as the 
roots, at some distance from the crowns, and are very rarely seen above 
the ground. 

There is no cure for crown gall, but preventive measures, such as 
inspection and destruction of all affected nursery trees, may keep it out 
of the orchard. 



94 



APPLE GROWING IN CALIFORNIA. 



POWDERY MILDEW OF THE APPLE. 

(Podosphara leucotricha and P. oxycavthu.) 

The above disease and scab are the two worst fungous troubles of the 
apple that occur in California. Mildew attacks the leaves and tender 
twigs and is recognized by a whitish powdery appearance of the twigs, 




Fig. 50. — Apple twig affected with mildew, showing characteristic appearance. 
(After R. E. and Elizabeth H. Smith) 

both in the summer and winter seasons. There is also more or less 
curling of the leaves. According to Bulletin No. 120. recently published 
by W. S. Ballard of the Bureau of Plant Industry and W. H. Volok, 



APPLE GROWING IN CALIFORNIA. 95 

County Commissioner of Santa Cruz County, the winter is spent both 
in dormant buds and as spores in black patches on the twigs. The 
disease may be started in the spring from the fungus in the dormant 
buds or from these black patches on the twigs, the former being the 
common source of infestation in the Pajaro Valley. The climatic condi- 
tions of that section are said to favor very greatly the development of 
the disease. At high altitudes, wherever apples are grown, serious infes- 
tations have been found. Here again moisture conditions are such as 
to aggravate the trouble. The authors of the previously mentioned bul- 
letin recommend finely divided sulphur in some form as the very best 
mildew fungicide. Ordinary flowers of sulphur is not fine enough for 
good results. The following instructions and formula are copied from 
their bulletin and this formula has given general satisfaction wdierever 
it has been tested out : 

Preparation of the Iron-Sulphid Mixture. 

The following directions are for the preparation of sufficient stock iron-sulphid 
mixture to make 500 gallons of spray : Fill a 50-gallon barrel about two thirds full 
of water. Weigh out 10 pounds of iron sulphate (copperas), place in a sack, and 
suspend in the water. The iron sulphate will dissolve fairly rapidly, and when it is 
all in solution measure out carefully 2J gallons of commercial lime-sulphur solution 
testing 33° Baume. or 2 gallons and 3 pints of a lime-sulphur solution testing 32° 
Baume. Slowly pour all but 2 pints of the lime-sulphur solution into the iron- 
sulphate solution in the barrel, stirring the mixture vigorously with a hoe or shovel. 
The addition of the lime-sulphur solution will produce a bulky, black precipitate, and 
when all but 2 pints of the lime-sulphur solution has been added the mixture should 
be allowed to stand for a few minutes, when the black precipitate will begin to settle 
and a little of the clear liquid at the top can be carefully dipped out with a clean 
glass or cup. This clear liquid will probably show no yellow lime-sulphur color, 
which means that an excess of lime-sulphur solution has not yet been added. In 
other woids, there is still some iron sulphate in solution, in which case the addition 
of a drop of lirne-sulphur solution to the clear liquid in the glass will produce a black 
precipitate. This means that more lime-sulphur solution should be added to the stuck 
in the barrel, and about half of the remaining 2 pints should now be poured in and 
the contents of the barrel stirred vigorously and allowed to stand. Some of the 
clear liquid should again be dipped off and tested as before, to determine whether an 
excess of lime-sulphur solution has been added. If necessary, the addition of small 
quantities of lime-sulphur solution should be continued until some of the clear liquid 
dipped from the top, after the contents of the barrel have been well stirred and 
allowed to settle, shows a pale yellowish lime-sulphur tint. The purpose of using 
a slight excess of the lime-sulphur solution is to insure all the iron sulphate being 
utilized. The voluminous black precipitate that is formed consists of iron sulphid. 
precipitated sulphur, and calcium sulphate. After a slight excess of lime-sulphur 
solution has been added, the barrel should be filled with water and the contents stirred 
thoroughly and allowed to stand for several hours. The black iron-sulphid mixture 
will settle into the lower half or third of the barrel, and the clear liquid should be 
poured off by carefully and gradually tipping the barrel, without allowing any of the 
black precipitate to run out. The barrel should again be filled with water, the 
contents thoroughly stirred and allowed to stand several hours, and the clear liquid 
poured off as before. This operation of washing the precipitate should be repeated 
until the water poured off no longer shows the yellow lime-sulphur tinge. Probably 
three or more such washings will be required, depending upon how careful the operator 
has been in using only a slight excess of lime-sulphur solution. 

It is evident that the preparation of this stock supply should be commenced two or 
three days before the spraying is to be done, but when once prepared it may be kept 
indefinitely. If care is used in weighing out each lot of iron sulphate and if the 
lime-sulphur solution used is accurately measured there will be no trouble in making 



96 APPLE GROWING IN CALIFORNIA. 

up the stock supplies rapidly after the first two or three batches have been prepared, 
and it will be remembered that each batch is sufficient for making 500 gallons of 
spray mixture. In order to keep a supply of the stock mixture on hand, several 
batches should be prepared before the spraying commences, and as rapidly as a barrel 
is emptied the preparation of a new batch should be started. Iron sulphate is com- 
paratively cheap, and the entire cost of materials for preparing 100 gallons of the 
mildew spray, when diluted according to the recommendations given in this bulletin, 
should not exceed 15 or 20 cents. 

When the washing has been completed, the stock barrel should be filled with water 
to exactly 50 gallons. The material is now ready for use as directed under "'General 
formula for the spray mixture," but care should be taken to stir the contents of the 
barrel thoroughly each time before any of the mixture is taken out. 

General Formula for the Spray Mixture. 

Slock iron-sulphid mixture 20 gallons 

Arsenicals and nicotine solution to be added as required. 
'Water, to make . 200 gallons 

When arsenicals and a nicotine solution are to be used in conjunction with the 
iron-sulphid mixture, the combined spray may be prepared by first running about 150 
or 160 gallons of water into the spray tank. The agitator is then started and the 
20 gallons of stock iron-sulphid mixture is poured in, after which the nicotine solution 
and the arsenicals may be added in the usual way. Sufficient water should then be 
added to make 200 gallons. 

This same strength of iron-sulphid mixture, namely, 20 gallons in 200 gallons of 
spray, is to be used in all the mildew applications. It will be seen that the 20 gallons 
of stock mixture used in each 200 gallons of spray contains the product from 4 
pounds of iron sulphate. 

There are other products besides iron-sulphid which contain sulphur 
in a very finely divided form that can be used just as effectively in the 
control of mildew. The California Spray Chemical Company at Wat- 
sonville is supplying a form known as ' ' Milled Sulphur, ' ' and both the 
General Chemical Company and Balfour, Guthrie & Co., of San Fran- 
cisco, sell another product under the trade name of ' ' Atomic Sulphur. ' ' 
No doubt there are still other forms that could be used to good advan- 
tage, the essential qualifications being the finely divided state of the 
sulphur, as has already been indicated. 

As is true with most diseases of this nature, a thrifty, strong growing 
tree is apt to resist attacks to a greater or less extent. Consequently, it 
is very desirable that everything be done toward keeping orchards in the 
best possible condition. Thus fertilization may be a great benefit, and 
Ballard and Volck recommend spraying during the early spring with a 
crude oil emulsion, which has a tendency to stimulate growth. Pruning 
is an important means of checking this disease. All infested twigs which 
are noticed during the time of pruning, either in the dormant or sum- 
mer season, should be cut from the trees. 



APPLE GROWING IX CALIFORNIA. 



97 



CHAPTER XVI. 

PICKING, GRADING AND PACKING. 

PICKING. 

The knowledge that has been acquired in regard to the various organ- 
isms which produce decay in fruits, and that many gain entrance only 
where the skin is broken by bruising or where a worm iias entered. h;is 
resulted in much greater care being taken, when picking apples, than 
formerly. How well can we all remember the time when the apples high 
up in the trees were shaken to the ground or knocked down with a pole 
regardless of the injury done to them in falling. It is now known that 
only the sound apples will keep well when packed, and even slight 
bruises will act as starting points for decay and the ruination of the 
fruit. As a consequence, picking is done with the greatest care by the 




Fig'. 51. — A good type of picking bucket. (Original) 

better orchardists and the handling of the fruit is done as carefully as 
though one were handling eggs. As far as possible all stems should 
remain intact after fruit is picked. 

When pulled from the trees the apples should be carefully placed 
in the picking bag. Careless dropping of the fruit into the bags may 
result in many bruises, and again when emptying from the bag into a 
box. care should be exercised so that they are not allowed to drop too far. 
The type of picking bucket shown in Fig. 51 has a canvas bottom which 
opens when being unhooked at the side, and the apples are emptied 

7—13683 



98 



APPLE GROWING IN CALIFORNIA. 



into the box without danger of bruising, provided that the picking 
vessel is not held too high when opened. There are a number of good 
picking bags made somewhat like the one shown in the picture, any 
of which will give good service, providing that they are used by careful 
pickers. Common buckets of small size are sometimes used and are 
quite satisfactory, but are not so conveniently emptied as vessels with 
the collapsible bottoms. 

GRADING. 

The grading of apples is usually done in the packing-houses. Fig. 52 
shows boxes of apples in house awaiting this work, which is sometimes 




-Boxes of fruit in the packing-house ready for 
C. B. Weeks) 



rradins 



(Photo by 



done by means of mechanical graders, of which there are a number of 
different types on the market. Some of these are said to be very satis- 
factory, while others are apt to bruise the fruit more or less, thus bring- 
ing about decay prematurely. Ordinarily such work is done by hand. 
The beginner is given a board in which holes of different sizes, repre- 
senting the diameters of the apples that are used in the different styles of 
pack, are made. These are used simply to train the eye to the various 
sizes, and are not necessary after one has been doing the work for a 
short time. All cull apples are removed during the process of grading ; 
that is, such as are stemless, contain worms, worm holes, bruises, limb 
scars, etc. When mechanical graders are used, all blemished fruit must 
be picked out by hand, either before or after it has been put through 
the grader. 



APPLE GROWING IN CALIFORNIA. 



99 



PACKING. 

What we might term the evolution of the apple pack has heen very 
marked in the past quarter century. We can all remember the time when 
no attempt was made at grading, small apples and big apples being put 
into the same package, usually the former on the bottom; indeed, some- 
times no attempt was made to keep varieties separate and several kinds 
were placed in the sack, box or barrel and sold together. The West, with 
its cooperative marketing organizations, has undoubtedly done more 
toward developing a uniform pack and establishing a fancy trade than 
the rest of the United States. The East, until very recent years, has 
insisted on putting apples in barrels and, while standardization of the 
barrel pack could be accomplished as well as of the box pack, the East has 
been slower in evolving along these lines, and has of recent years been 
copying after the West, until now apples are often packed in boxes and 
marketing agencies with their standardized packs are competing with 
our western organizations. 

The boxes that are being used at the present time are variable in 
size. California uses a box that is 9| by 11 by 22 inches ; Oregon and 
Colorado have boxes of the following dimensions, respectively: 10A_ by 




■ 



- h 



L 






RBest 

Brand 

Apples 




RBest 

Brand 

Apples 



RBest 

Brand 

App/es 



Fig. 53. — Yellow Bellflowers, illustrating 3J, 4 and 4J tier packs. (Original) 

11| by 18 inches and 11-J by 1H by 18 inches. A bill, designed to create 
a standard size and pack, was introduced into the session of Congress 
just closed by Judge J. S. Raker, but failed to pass. With California 
using one sized box principally, Oregon another and Colorado still an- 
other, it is found to be a difficult matter to agree on a standard, but as 
standardization in the matter of packages for all fruits is becoming 
necessary for uniformly good sales, the time will come, no doubt, when 
the West will agree on a certain sized box to be used and marked as 
standard. 

In the Watsonville section of California, where a splendid pack on the 
whole is made, there are three packs known as 3^, 1 and 4-i tier, with the 
1 tier as the standard, or average size, which is most desirable to the 
trade in general. This size varies from 2| inches as a minimum to 3| 
inches as a maximum. The 3£ tier size contains apples over 3^ inches in 
diameter, and the 4J smaller apples than 2f. These rules are for their 
standard varieties : Yellow Newtown and Yellow Bellflower. 

In the case of the 3| and 4 tier apples, the fruit is always wrapped by 
the packers. This practice is one of tremendous value and should be 



100 



APPLE GROWING IX CALIFORNIA. 



followed by every section where apples are produced commercially. 
Such wrapping not only facilitates the work of packing, but enables 
one to put up a much firmer pack and one less subject to bruising in 
boxing and during transportation than could otherwise be possible. The 
keeping qualities of the fruit are no doubt enhanced to a marked degree. 
Tasteful designs or trade marks may be placed on these wrappers ;is 
well as the name of grower and locality, thus adding greatly to the 
attractiveness of the pack. 

Fig. 53 shows three boxes of excellent Yellow Bellflowers grown and 
packed by Rodgers Bros, of Watsonville. This picture illustrates nicely 
the diagonal pack and shows the three sizes, viz : 3|, 4 and -H tier. 

The pack, when made, should be so firm that each apple is held fast 
by another, and none have any room for play. When covered and 




Fig'. 54. — A well packed box of apples with a top bulge of i inch. (Original) 

nailed there should be a bulge of at least if inch on the top and a slightly 
lesser amount on the bottom. (See Fig. 54.) 

Tasty lithographed labels of various designs are used on the ends of 
boxes, and such should result in the best kind of advertising for the 
grower. When the trade learns a label and knows that the man who 
uses it always exercises the greatest care in packing his fruit, it may be 
the means of securing for him a good market. On the other hand, 
such labels may have the opposite tendency and work' injury to the 
man who persists in packing undesirable fruit and misrepresenting it 
by the label. 

Special Packages. 

While practically all of the fancy California apples are wrapped and 
packed in two sized boxes, viz: the California box and the Oregon box. 
there is a certain limited demand, at least, for a smaller package, such 



APPLE GROWING IX CALIFORNIA. 



Kll 



as a person could easily carry away from a grocery store. Recognizing 
this demand, Mr. J. P. Benton of Areata has been packing apples in 
cartons which hold just one third of a box. Pigs. 55 and 56 show one 
of his special cartons packed and ready to seal, and the other sealed. 
It is probable that Large growers close to market would nut he justified 




55. — Carton used by .]. K 



Benton of Areata, which holds 
of apples. 



third of a box 



in making- such a pack, hut on the other hand the grower with a small 
orchard, located at a distance from market, might he ahle to secure a 
limited fancy trade by packing only the very finest apples in such 
packages as these. Mr. Benton secures his own market and deserves 
success in his new venture. 



102 



APPLE GROWING IN CALIFORNIA. 



CHAPTER XVII. 

BY-PRODUCTS. 

No matter how carefully an orchard may be sprayed and cared for 
in general, there is always a considerable loss of fruit because of wind- 
falls, undersized apples, limb bruises, sunburn, etc. Such fruit is not fit 
to pack and while sometimes the temptation is very strong to put it in 
boxes and market it, yet the prices received are seldom such as to justify 




'he same carton as shown in Fij 



>5, after it has been sealed. 



the practice. The utilization of all such fruit which, if boxed, brings 
nothing, and if left in the orchard ordinarily goes to waste, is one of our 
important problems. 

There are many by-products of the apple for which great demand 
could be created. Some of these are jelly, cider, vinegar, apple butter, 
dried apples, etc. The drying business has reached quite extensive pro- 
portions in the Pajaro Valley. 

As an assistant judge at the California Apple Show held at Wat- 
sonville in 1913. the writer had the pleasure of helping with the 
awarding of the first premium for feature exhibits to Mrs. Hugh 



APPLE GROWING IN CALIFORNIA. 



103 



McGowan, who had constructed with jelly glasses, all full of pure apple 
jelly of different shades of coloring, a building which was an exad 
reproduction of the greal Watsonville auditorium where the show was 
held. The dimensions of this auditorium made of jelly were as follows: 
length, 15£ feet; width. 10 feet; height, about 4 feet. 

This season such a building was constructed at the California Apple 
Show held in San Francisco and was again recognized by the judges 
by being awarded third premium for feature exhibits. Fig. 57 shows 
this excellent exhibit. Mrs. McGowan certainly deserves much credit 
and the thanks of the community in which she lives for her energy 
in making such a tremendous quantity of jelly and in putting up such 
an exhibit as the one mentioned. It is hard to foresee what the develop- 
ment of this one industry may mean to the Watsonville section. This 
is just an illustration of the 2'reat possibilities that there are for those 
who will take advantage of them. 

Recently while visiting some of the fruit orchards in the Julian section 
of San Diego Countv — which is not easilv accessible — the writer was 




Fig. 57. — Model of the Watsonville Auditorium made from glasses filled with pure 
apple jelly. Exhibited by Mrs. Hugh McGowan at the Annual Apple Show in San 
Francisco. 

pleased to find an up to date plant, on the ranch belonging to S. A. 
Walters, for the manufacture of apple butter, cider, vinegar and other 
by-products. Mr. Walters has undoubtedly solved the problem of 
getting good returns for his fruit. While it might be easy to overdo 
the manufacture of some of these by-products, yet it would seem that 
there are great possibilities, particularly for orchardists w T ho are a long 
way from market and who have no provision for storing their fruit. As 
has already been mentioned, one of the chief reasons for manufacturing 
by-products is that there is ordinarily a great waste of imperfect fruit. 
The aim should always be to grow the best possible apples which may 
be packed and sold, most seasons, to good advantage. There will, how- 
ever, come seasons of low prices when even the very best can be utilized 
in the manufacture of such by-products as seem best, and in this way 
a good market will be insured. 



104 APPLE GROWING IN CALIFORNIA. 

CHAPTER XVIII 

PRODUCTION, CONSUMPTION AND RECIPES. 

Statistics show that the acreage of apples has been greatly increased 
in the past few years, which, of course, means a corresponding increase 
in the production. The East is also awakening to the possibilities in 
apple growing, and where thousands of acres of this fruit were destroyed 
by San Jose scale not many years ago, new orchards are being set out 
and the West must be prepared to meet this competition. 

It lias already been stated that the apple crop varies in size from 
season to season, largely on account of killing spring frosts in different 
parts of the country. This variation in size means a fluctuation in 
prices, which range from very high in one season to very low in another. 
During seasons of light crops the marketing problem solves itself, but 
during seasons of very heavy crops there is always danger of prices being 
so low as to make apple growing unprofitable. It is this fact that should 
make us bend every effort toward increasing the consumption of apples, 
in order to lessen the possibility of overproduction and consequent low 
prices for our fruit. 

We are abundantly justified in any campaign that may be carried on 
with the aim of increasing consumption, because of the excellent food 
value of the apple. Much has been done in the past few years to educate 
the p§ople along this line. The splendid apple shows that have been 
held in different parts of the country have taken a leading part in this 
work. In our own state the great California apple show — which is 
usually held annually at Watsonville, but this year at San Francisco — 
and the annual Sebastopol Gravenstein show, have advertised in an 
emphatic way the value of the apple as food. Who could look at a tasty 
jelly exhibit, such as Mrs. McGowan's, shown in Fig. 57, without having 
a better taste created for apple jelly ? Or who could look at the splendid 
exhibits of Gravensteins at the Sebastopol show (Fig. 58) without going 
away feeling that he must buy a box of Gravensteins when he gets home? 

Our fruit journals have also done much toward increasing the con- 
sumption of this, the best of all fruits. In 1912 the October number of 
"Better Fruit," published at Hood River, Oregon, printed a list of 209 
ways for cooking the apple. These recipes were gathered by L. Ger- 
trude Mackay, of the domestic science department, Pullman, Washing- 
ton. With the help of Mrs. Weldon 50 of these have been selected and 
are here printed, in hopes that they may reach many housewives of Cali- 
fornia, who will be encouraged to try them and cook more apples than 
they otherwise would, thus aiding in the work of increasing the con- 
sumption. 



APPLE GROWING IX CALIFORNL 



105 




106 APPLE GROWING IN CALIFORNIA. 

RECIPES. 

1. Baked Apples. — Peel and core tart apples; fill the holes with shredded citron,, 
raisins, sugar and a little lemon peel. Place in baking dish and pour over them one 
half cup of water and dust with granulated sugar. Bake in a slow oven until per- 
fectly tender and sprinkle with soft bread crumbs and sugar; bake for ten minutes 
and serve hot with cream or pudding sauce. 

2. Apple Fritters, English Style. — Beat one egg, add a few grains of salt and one 
fourth cup of milk ; cut out four rounds of bread from half inch slices of stale bread ; 
set the bread into the milk and egg mixture and cook in deep fat. 

Stew apples, pared and cored, in a few spoonfuls of syrup. Place an apple on 
each round of bread and grate a little nutmeg over the top. Serve very hot. 

3. Afterthought. — One pint of nice apple sauce sweetened to taste ; stir in the yolks 
of two eggs well beaten. Bake for fifteen minutes. Cover with a meringue made of 
two well beaten whites and one half cup of powdered sugar. Return to the oven and 
brown. 

4. Apricot Sherbet Screed in Apple Shells. — Select bright red apples of uniform 
size, rub until they have a high polish. Cut off the blossom end and scoop out the 
pulp ; carefully notch the edge. Fill with apricot sherbet and serve upon apple loaves. 

5. Apple Balls with a Mixture of Fruit. — Peel large apples, with a potato scoop 
cut out small balls, dropping them into water with a little vinegar added to keep them 
white. Prepare a mixture of grapefruit pulp, pineapple and banana and put into 
glasses ; add a few of the apple balls, pour over all the juice left from the fruit which 
has been boiled down with sugar ; cool and serve at once or the apples may turn 
brown. 

6. Apple Balls Served in Syrup. — Prepare the apple balls as above : prepare a rich 
sugar syrup ; color with a little pink color paste and drop in the balls, cook slowly 
until the balls are softened, pile in glasses and add a little syrup to each glass. Serve 
cold. 

7. Brown Betty. — Pare and chop six apples; place a layer of apple in a well 
buttered pudding dish, then a layer of bread crumbs, sprinkle with brown sugar and 
cinnamon, repeat until the dish is full ; add several generous lumps of butter and 
pour sweet milk or hot water on until it comes within an inch of the top of the pan. 
Bake in a moderate oven until brown and serve with plain or whipped cream. 

S. Apple Butter. — Pare, core and quarter the desired quantity of apples, allowing 
one third of sweet to two thirds of sour apples. Boil sweet cider until it is reduced 
one half. While the cider is boiling rapidly add apples until the mixture is the desired 
thieknessi. Cook slowly, stirring constantly and skimming when necessary. When the 
apples begin to separate from the cider take two pounds of sugar to each bushel of 
apples used ; add a little ground cinnamon and boil until it remains in a smooth mass, 
when a little is cooled. Usually one and one half bushels of apples> are enough foi- 
one and one half gallons of boiled cider. 

9. Apple Biscuit. — To one pint of light bread sponge add one quarter cup of 
molasses, one te'aspoonful of lard and graham or whole wheat flour for a soft dough. 
Beat vigorously and finally work into the dough one large cup of chopped apple; 
shape the dough into biscuit and place in muffin pans and allow them to be very light 
before baking. 

10. Dried Apple Butter. — Wash one pound of dried or evaporated apples thor- 
oughly, soak over night ; in the morning cook with plenty of water. When well done 
rub through a sieve or colander; add sugar and cinnamon to taste, the juice of one 
lemon, juice of two oranges and butter the size of an egs. Cook slowly until it wilt 
drop heavily from a spoon. 



APPLE GROWING IN CALIFORNIA. 107 

11. Apples En Casserole. — Pare, core and slice two quarts of apples and put in an 
earthen dish, alternately, with one and one half cups of sugar; add one fourth cup of 
cold water, cover the dish and bake in a moderate oven. Serve either hot or cold 
with cream. 

12. Apple Charlotte, I. — Soak one half a box of granulated gelatine in one half cup 
of cold water for half an hour. Whip one pint of cream and set on ice ; add one half 
cup of powdered sugar, a tablespoonful of lemon juice and two good sized apples, 
grated. Dissolve the gelatine over hot water and strain into the mixture ; stir quickly 
and pour into a mould. Set on ice to chill and serve. 

13. Apple Charlotte, II. — Pare, core and slice apples; cook in butter until soft and 
dry ; add sugar to taste. Line a plain mould with sippets of bread an inch wide, 
dipped in melted butter ; let one overlap the other ; arrange lozenges of bread similarly 
in the bottom of the mould. Fill the center with the apple and cover the top with 
bread. Bake for half an hour in a hot oven. Serve with cream and sugar or a hot 
sauce. 

14. Plain Apple Charlotte. — Soak one quarter of a box of granulated gelatine in 
two tablespoonfuls of cold water ; add to one pint of hot apple sauce, flavor and press 
through a sieve. As soon as the mixture begins to harden stir in one pint of whipped 
cream. Line a mould with Iadyfingers, pour in the mixture and set away to cool. 

15. Apple Cobbler. — Pare and quarter enough tart apples to fill a baking dish 
three fourths full. (Over witb a rich baking powder biscuit dough made soft enough 
to stir, spread it over the apples without rolling. Make several cuts in the center to 
allow the steam to escape. Pake for three quarters of an hour and serve hot with 
sugar and rich cream. 

16. Coddled Apples. — Take tart, ripe apples of uniform size ; remove the cores. 
Place the fruit in the bottom of a porcelain kettle, spread thickly with sugar ; cover 
the bottom of the kettle with water and allow the apples to simmer until tender. 
Pour the syrup over the apples and serve cold. 

17. Apple Conserve. — For each pound of quartered and pared apples allow three 
quarters of a pound of sugar and half a pint of water. Boil sugar and water until 
a rich syrup is formed ; add the apples and simmer until clear. Take up carefully, 
lay on plates and dry in the sun. Roll in sugar and pack in tin boxes lined with 
waxed paper. 

18. Compote of Apples. — One pound of apples, one quarter pound of lump sugar, 
one cup of water, the juice of half a lemon, a few drops of red coloring. Put the 
sugar, water and lemon juice into a clean enameled sauce pan and let them boil 
quickly for ten minutes. Meanwhile peel the apples, cut them in quarters and remove 
the cores. Throw the pieces into the boiling syrup and let them cook slowly until 
clear and tender, but not broken. Then remove the quarters of apples carefully, 
reduce the syrup a little and color it pink with the red coloring. Arrange the apples 
on a glass dish and pour the syrup over. A little cream or custard served with the 
compote is a great improvement. If the apples are small they may be cored and 
cooked whole. 

19. Apple Compote and Orange Marmalade. — Boil twelve tart apples in one quart 
of water until tender, strain through a jelly bag ; add one pound of granulated sugar 
and let boil. While boiling add twelve apples, cored and pared. When the apples are 
tender drain them carefully in a perforated skimmer. Boil the syrup until it jells ; 
fill the apples with orange marmalade and pour the syrup over them. Serve with 
whipped cream. 



1.08 APPLE GROWING IN CALIFORNIA. 

I'd. ('rah Apple Marmalade. — Wash and core crab apples and put them through the 
meat chopper. Put into a preserving- kettle and add water until it shows through 
the top layer of apples. Cook until soft. Weigh and add an equal weight of sugar. 
Cook until the mixture forms a jelly when cooled and pour into sterilized glasses. 
Cover with paraffine. 

21. Apple Custard. — Beat the yolks of four eggs and add one half cup of sugar; 
cook for one or two minutes and remove from the fire. Gradually add one pint of 
grated apple. Tour into a serving dish and cover with a meringue made of the well 
beaten whites of four eggs and three tablespoonfuls of powdered sugar. 

22. Apple Cup Custard. — Pare, core and steam four good sized tart apples until 
tender ; press through a sieve. While hot add one tablespoonful of butter, four table- 
spoonfuls of sugar, the yolks of four eggs aud one half pint of milk. Turn into baking 
cups and bake for twenty minutes. Beat the whites of four eggs until stiff, add four 
tablespoonfuls of sugar, beat and heap over the top of the cups; dust thickly with 
powdered sugar and brown in the oven. Serve cold. 

23. Apph Custards- Steam two large tart apples that have been peeled and cored. 
Rub them through a sieve and add one cupful of milk, two teaspoonfuls of butter, one 
quarter of a cupful of sugar and the yolks of four eggs. Turn the mixture into baking 
cups, stand them in hot water and bake about twenty minutes. When they come from 
the oven pile the beaten white of egg on top of each cup, sprinkle with powdered 
sugar and place in the oven to brown slightly. Serve cold. 

24. Apph Croquettes. — Pare, quarter and core enough tart apples to make a pint; 
place in a saucepan with one small tablespoonful of butter and, if the apples are not 
juicy, a few tablespoonfuls of water. Cover and stew gently until tender, then press 
through a sieve. Return to the fire and add sugar. Add one tablespoonful of corn- 
starch and one quarter of a teaspoonful of salt, mix to a thin paste with cold water ; 
stir uutil thickened, cover and cook slowly for fifteen minutes. Turn out on a greased 
dish and set away until cold. Form into tiny croquettes, roll in bread crumbs, dip 
in lightly beaten egg. then roll again in crumbs and fry in deep fat ; drain on unglazed 
paper and serve with roast pork or roast goose. 

25. Delmonico Apples. — Put a layer of apple sauce in a buttered pudding dish, 
sprinkle with ground almonds, dot with butter and sprinkle with crushed macaroons, 
add a little water and bake. Delicious when served with meat. 

20. Apple Delight. — Put a layer of apple sauce in a buttered pudding dish, dot with 
butter, add a layer of chopped peaches and apricots, sprinkle with blanched almonds, 
ground rather coarsely; repeat until pan is full; pour the peach juice over the 
mixture and bake for one hour. Serve as a relish with meat course. 

27. East India Chutney (Apple). — Pare and core twelve sour apples. Peel one 
medium sized onion. Remove seeds and stems from three peppers, one of which 
should be red. Chop apples, peppers, onion and one cup of raisins very fine ; add 
the juice of four lemons, one pint of cider vinegar and half a cup of currant jelly ; 
let simmer very gently for one hour, stirring frequently. Add one pint of cider 
vinegar, two cups of sugar, one tablespoonful each of salt and ground ginger and 
one fourth of a teaspoonful of cayenne ; cook for one hour more, stirring constantly. 
Store as canned fruit. 

2S. Apple Farci. — Choose tart red apples. Northern Spys if possible : wash, wipe 
and core. Do not pare. With the corer remove apple in three places, equally distant 
from stem and blossom end, holding corer in oblique position and pressing downward 
toward center. Fill these cavities with raisins, dates or figs, sugar, cinnamon. 
Canned or fresh pineapple is delicious filling. Always use raisins, placing them in 
the cavities first to prevent the other filling from slipping through. After filling- 
place the apples in a pan that has been sprinkled with sugar and cinnamon. Sprinkle 



APPLE GROWING IX CALIFORNIA. L09 

each apple with sugar and cinnamon. Place in a hot own until the sugar melts, 
then add one fourth cup of water or fruit juice and hake until tender. Baste 
frequently with the syrup. Serve either hot or cold with whipped cream sprinkled 
with cocoa. 

•_!'.». Apples Fried with Onions.— Peel onions and slice. Fry in fat until a rich 
brown : drain on soft brown paper. Fry unpared quarters of apple in the fat left 
from the onions. Arrange apples in a border on a platter, fill center with the fried 
onions and serve them hot. 

30. Fried Apples. — Quarter and core live apples without paring. Tut into a frying 
pan and melt beef drippings; when hot lay a layer of apples in it. skin side 
down, sprinkle with brown sugar, and when nearly done turn and brown : place on a 
platter and sprinkle with sugar; set in hot oven and continue frying apples one layer 
at a time. 

31. Apple Fritters, I. — Mix and sift one and one third cups of flour, two tea- 
spoonfuls of baking powder and one fourth teaspoonful of salt. Add gradually, while 
stirring constantly, two thirds of a cup of milk and one egg well beaten. Wipe, core, 
pure and cut two medium sized sour apples into eighths, then slice the eighths and 
stir into the batter. Drop by the spoonful into hot deep fat and fry until delicately 
browned: drain on brown paper and sprinkle with powdered sugar. 

32. Apple Fritters, II. — Pare and core four tart apples and cut in one fourth 
inch slices across the apple. Sprinkle with two tahlespoonfuls of lemon juice and 
powdered sugar. Prepare a batter by sifting- one cup of flour and one fourth tea- 
spoonful of salt. Add two well beaten yolks to one half cup of milk: mix and heat 
into the flour until smooth. Add one tablespoonful of melted butter or olive oil and 
cut in the well beaten whites of two eggs. Drain the apples, dip into the batter and 
fry in deep fat. When cooked drain on brown paper and sprinkle with powdered 
sugar before serving. 

33. Oxford Apples. — Pare, core and quarter four large tart apples and boil in very 
little water. Mash and add one tablespoonful of butter, half a cup of sugar, half a 
■ nil of fine bread crumbs, the yolks of four eggs and the whites of two eggs beaten 
light. Pour into a baking dish and cover with a meringue made id' the whites of two 
eggs and two tahlespoonfuls of powdered sugar and brown. 

34. Apples with Oatmeal.— Core apples, leaving large cavities, pare and cook in a 
syrup made by boiling one cup of sugar with one and one half cups of water for five 
minutes. When the apples are soft drain and till cavities with the hot, well cooked 
meal and serve with cream and sugar. 

35. Sausages ami Fried Apples. — Prick the sausages well with a fork. Place in a 
deep frying pan, pour in enough boiling water to cover the bottom, cover and cook 
over a moderate fire. When the water evaporates remove the cover and turn several 
times that they may be nicely browned. Turn on to a platter. Core a number of 
large tart apples, cut them in rings an inch thick and fry in the sausage fat. Garnish 
the sausage with the apples and serve. 

30. Apple Tapioca. — Soak three fourths of a cup of tapioca in water for one hour 
to cover, drain, add two and one half cups of boiling water and one half teaspoonful 
of salt; cook in double boiler until transparent. Core and pare apples, arrange in a 
buttered baking dish, till cavities with sugar, pour tapioca over apples and bake in a 
moderate oven until the apples are soft. Serve with sugar and cream or with cream 
sauce. Sago may be used instead of tapioca. 

Cream Sauce. Mix and beat until stiff three fourths of a cup of thick cream and 
one fourth of a cup of milk, add one third of a cup of powdered sugar and one half 
teaspoonful of vanilla. 



110 APPLE GROWING IN CALIFORNIA. 

37. Apple Water — Wipe, core and pare one large sour apple, put two teaspoonfuls 
of sugar in the cavity ; bake until tender, mash, pour one cup of boiling water over 
it and let stand one half hour and strain. This is especially refreshing for fever 
patients. 

38. Apple Christmas Pudding. — Pare, core and quarter six tart apples. Add a cup 
of water, cover and boil quickly for five minutes. Press through a sieve ; add a table- 
spoonful of butter and a cup of sugar. Beat three eggs until light ; add one pint of 
milk and a cup of hot boiled rice. Add the apples and bake for half an hour. Lemon 
and orange rind may be added. Serve cold with cream or lemon sauce. 

39. Apple Sauce Pudding. — Cream one quarter cup of butter with one half cup of 
brown sugar ; add one beaten egg, two tablespoonfuls of milk, one half teaspoonful 
of baking powder and enough flour to make a stiff batter. Bake in two layers, put 
together while hot with apple sauce and serve with custard. 

40. Apples Baked in Strawberry Jam. — Core tart apples and place in a baking 
dish ; fill the cavities with strawberry jam and bake until soft. Serve hot with cream. 

41. English Apple Pie. — Butter a shallow agate dish. Select one that is deeper 
than a pie plate. Fill the dish with sliced apples, sprinkle with a cup of sugar, half 
a teaspoonful of salt and a little nutmeg. Put over it two teaspoonfuls of butter in 
bits; add three tablespoonfuls of cold water. Cover with good paste and bake for 
forty minutes. Serve with cream. 

42. Pot Apple Pie. — Peel and quarter eight nice tart apples (Greenings are the 
best), aud slice in strips about half a pound of fat salt pork and mix a nice light 
biscuit dough. Then take an iron kettle and lay strips of the pork across the bottom 
about half an inch apart, then lay on that loosely some of the quartered apples, then 
sugar and cinnamon, then slice your biscuit dough in strips about the same as the 
pork and crosswise, leaving about an inch between each strip. Repeat this operation 
until you have used up your material, having the biscuit dough on top ; then pour 
down the side of the kettle carefully a cup of boiling water, cover and cook slowly 
for one hour and a half, adding boiling water when necessary. This is delicious 
when served with whipped cream. 

43. Apple Pie Decorated with Cream and Cheese.— Make an apple pie after your 
favorite recipe. Have ready a cream cheese, press through a ricer, cut and fold into 
the cheese a cup of double cream beaten until solid ; add a few grains of salt. Put 
this mixture through a pastry tube, in any pattern, on top of the pie. Serve as a 
dessert at either luncheon or dinner. 

44. Date and Apple Pie. — Line a pie plate with a rather rich crust; fill it with a 
mixture of chopped dates and apples, sprinkle over half a cup of sugar and one tea- 
spoonful of cinnamon ; add two tablespoonfuls of water, cover with a top crust and 
bake about one half hour in a moderate oven. 

45. Apple Peanut Salad. — Pare, core aud chop slightly acid apples and mix them 
with half as much chopped celery. Mix a dressing of peanut butter, using five table- 
spoonfuls of lemon juice to one tablespoonful of peauut butter. Mix dressing through 
the apples and celery and season with salt and cayenne pepper. Chill the salad and 
serve on lettuce and garnish with peanuts. 

46. Apple, Orange and Peach Salad. — Equal parts of apples, peaches and oranges 
are cut into cubes and mixed with cream dressing. Serve in apple shells or in the 
rind of oranges. 

47. Apple Chicken Salad.— Take six ripe apples and scoop out the centers; fill 
them with cold cooked chicken, minced fine, seasoned with finely minced green peppers 
and salt, with enough cream to moisten. Place apples in a steamer and cook until 
almost tender. Put them on ice and serve with mayonnaise on lettuce. 



APPLE GROWING IN CALIFORNIA. Ill 

48. Apple Salad. — Chop one half pound of cold veal or lean pork and two large 
tart apples ; add two chopped pickles, one tablespoonful of olive oil, one tablespoonful 
of vinegar, season with salt and pepper and mix with mayonnaise dressing. 

49. Apple and Cabbage Salad. — Shave cabbage fine and soak for one hour in 
•celery water, made by adding one teaspoonful of celery salt to each quart of water. 
Drain and dry on a soft towel. Add an equal amount of apple cut into match-like 
pieces : mix with boiled dressing. 

50. Apple and Chase Salad. — Mix some chopped pecans with twice their bulk of 
cream cheese, adding a little thick cream to blend the mixture. Season with pepper 
and salt and make into tiny balls. Pare mellow, tart apples, core and slice across 
the center into rings about one half inch thick, then arrange rings on lettuce leaves 
and place several cheese balls in the center. Serve with cream salad dressing. 



1 1 '2 APPLE GROWING IN CALIFORNIA. 

CHAPTER XIX. 

INSECTICIDES AND FUNGICIDES. 

In spraying the apple for the control of the various insect pests and 
fungous diseases that affect this fruit, there are many different formulae 
used, the principal of which are given herewith, under the headings Con- 
tact Insecticides, Poisonous Insecticides and Fungicides. 

CONTACT INSECTICIDES. 
Lime-sulphur (commercial). 
Lime-sulphur ( homo-made ) . 
Nicotine. 

Kerosene emulsion. 
Distillate emulsion. 
( 'rude oil emulsion. 
Whale oil soap. 

POISONOUS INSECTICIDES. 

Arsenate of lead. 
Paris green. 
Arsenite <d zinc. 

FUNGICIDES. 
Bordeaux mixture. 
Lime-sulphur ( commercial ) . 
Lime-sulphur (home-made). 
Lime-sulphur ( self-boiled) . 
Iron-sulphid (see Apple Mildew I . 
Atomic and Milled sulphur. 

SPRAY FORMULA. 
Li me -Sulphur — Commercial. 

Practically every insecticide company manufactures lime-sulphur, 
consequently there are a great many different brands on the market, 
most of which are good. This material comes in liquid form and is 
diluted with water, using 1 part of the liquid to 10 parts of water for a 
dormant spray, and 1 to 35 for summer use on apples. 

Li me -Sulphur — Home-made. 

Stone lime 40 pounds. 

Sulphur 30 pounds. 

Water 100 gallons. 

Preparation.— Bring about 50 gallons of water to a boil in some 
suitable vessel, or a sufficient amount for slaking the 40 pounds of lime. 
Add the sulphur and mix as well as possible with the water. When the 
water is hot put in the lime, which will slake almost instantly with the 
generation of a great amount of heat. This is desirable, as it helps effect 
a combination of the lime and sulphur at the start. The mixture should 



APPLE GROWING IN CALIFORNIA. 113 

now be boiled for at least 45 minutes. When finished it is a bright red 
eolor, which often turns olive green upon further boiling. There is no 
danger of boiling too long, but on the other hand too little boiling may 
be responsible for a poor spray. 

Lime-sulphur is one of our best insecticides, as well as fungicides. 

Nicotine. 

For the various plant lice which affect apples there is nothing better 
to apply during the summer season than nicotine, in some form or other. 
The most commonly used nicotine spray is Black Leaf "40," and it is 
usually applied at the strength of 1 part of water to 1000 parts of the 
nicotine solution. The addition of 5 pounds or more of soap to 100 
gallons of the diluted spray adds to its efficiency. 

Kerosene Emulsion. 

Water 1 gallon. 

Kerosene 2 gallons. 

Hard soap 1 pound. 

Preparation. — Bring the gallon of water to a boil and dissolve the 
soap in it ; while hot add the kerosene, agitating the mixture violently 
for fifteen minutes or more. A cream-like emulsion should be formed, 
which will mix readily with cold water. A stock solution, containing 
66§ per cent oil, is obtained by this process, and may be diluted to any 
desired strength. 

H. F. Wilson, of the Oregon Agricultural College, gives a simple 
method for determining the strength to be used, which is as follows : 
Divide 200 by the per cent desired, and subtract 3 ; this will give the 
amount of water necessary to add to each 3 gallons of stock solution for 
the desired per cent. Example: A 15 per cent solution is desired; 200 
divided by 15 equals 13^, minus 3 equals 10^; this amount of water 
added to 3 gallons of stock solution will give the 15 per cent emulsion. 

^Distillate Emulsion. 

Distillate (2S° Baume) 20 gallons. 

Whale oil soap 30 pounds. 

Water to mix 12 gallons. 

I'n partition. — Dissolve the whale oil soap in the water, heating it to 
the boiling point; add the distillate and agitate thoroughly while the 
solution is hot. For use add from 10 to 20 gallons of water to each 
gallon of the above mixture. 

*Crude Oil Emulsion. 

Water _ 175 gallon?. 

Liquid soap ________ 3 gallons. 

Crude oil ___ 25 gallons. 

Pn paration.— Fill the. spray tank with the 175 gallons of water; add 
the liquid soap; agitate thoroughly for one minute, after which add the 
crude oil, continuing the agitation. 

*Copied from "Injurious and Beneficial Insects of California," by E. O. Essig-. 



8—13683 



114 APPLE GROWING IN CALIFORNIA. 

If the liquid soap can not be had, use 20 pounds whale oil soap, dis- 
solved in 10 gallons of boiling water, to which 3 pounds of lye have been 
added. 

Whale Oil Soap. 

This soap is often used in combination with nicotine sprays, to 
increase their penetration and spreading qualities. Alone as a spray for 
apple aphids it is very valuable, when used at the strength of 1 pound 
of soap to 5 gallons of water. 

The ordinary form of this soap has to be melted before being used. 
There is, however, a liquid form on the market which is much more 
conveniently handled. 

Arsenate of Lead. 
This is the most commonly used arsenical spray in the apple orchard, 
and ordinarily is applied at the strength of 3 pounds paste to 50 gallons 
of water. This amount is sufficient to kill codling moth, canker worm, 
tent caterpillar and other larvae which feed upon foliage and fruit. 
A powdered form of arsenate of lead is also on the market and should 
be used according to the directions on container. 

Paris Green. 

In the past this arsenical poison has been very extensively used in 
spraying for the control of chewing insects, but its use has been super- 
seded by the safer and generally better arsenate of lead. For codling 
moth and other chewing insects it should be applied at the strength of 
f pound to 100 gallons of water. On account of the likelihood of there 
being more or less soluble arsenic in the Paris green, which may blight 
the foliage, lime in small quantities should always be added to the spray. 
Five pounds of stone lime, slaked, to every 100 gallons of liquid is 
sufficient. 

Arsenite of Zinc. 

The above is one of the newer arsenical insecticides, and gives 
splendid results in killing certain insects, which are more or less resis- 
tant to arsenate of lead poisoning, as well as all those for wmich the 
arsenate of lead is used. It is a less stable compound and for that reason 
considerable damage has been done to trees and fruit because of its 
having burned the foliage. It is probably safe for the calyx application 
in spraying for codling moth. 

Bordeaux Mixture. 

Copper sulphate 10 pounds. 

Stone lime (unslaked) 10 pounds. 

Water 100 gallons. 

Preparation. — The copper sulphate is first dissolved by suspending the 
weighed amount in a sack, in a sufficient quantity of water. The lime 
is slaked in an equal amount of water and the two liquids poured 
together into the spray tank, where the agitator will keep the liquid 
properly mixed. 



APPLE GROWING IN CALIFORNIA. 115 

This is one of the oldest fungicides, and one which we might term the 
standard. 

Lime-Sulphur (Self-boiled). 

Stone lime 8 pounds. 

Sulphur 8 pounds. 

Water 50 gallons. 

Preparation. — The preparation differs from that of the home made 
hoiled lime-sulphur, in that only the heat of the lime, which is generated 
during the slacking process, is utilized. It is made in a barrel or tank, 
which may be covered tightly to retain the heat for about 15 or 20 
minutes, when a slight amount of the sulphur and lime will have com- 
bined. It is diluted with cold water, after being strained. 

In some of the states to the east the self-boiled lime-sulphur alone, 
or in combination with arsenate of lead, has been used very successfully 
for apple scab and mildew, but has not been generally recommended 
under California conditions. 

Atomic or Milled Sulphur. 

Very finely divided sulphur may now be purchased for spraying pur- 
poses. The forms known as ' ' Atomic ' ' and ' ' Milled ' ' sulphurs are com- 
monly used for mites with great success, and are excellent mildew fungi- 
cides. The directions for mixing come with the packages. 



INDEX. 117 



INDEX. 

Page 
ACREAGE, by counties S 

Yellow Newtowns and Yellow Bellttowers in Pajaro Valley 29 

AGE, influences size of fruit 67 

one year old tree best 36 

ALEXANDER r 14. 15, 36 

ALSOPHILA POMETARIA .__ 89 

ANNUAL PRUNING : 54 

APHELINUS MALI—. 85 

APHIS, avenue 88 

bakeri 88 

destruction of young grafts-- 61 

gossypii 88 

green apple 23, 86 

medicaglnis 88 

other apple species 87 

pomi __ 86 

purple aphis 86 

sorbi 86 

species affecting the apple 84 

woolly aphis 23, 84, 85 

APPLE, acreage bearing 8 

acreage non-bearing 8 

age to plant 36 

budding 32 

butter 102 

crab 16 

deep rooting trees desirable 85 

insect pests of 79 

propagation of 31 

root-grafting 34 

seedlings 31 

selection of trees for planting 35 

summer varieties 15 

ARCHIPS ARGYROSPILA 89 

ARKANSAS : 15, 16 

ARKANSAS BLACK 15' 16 

ARMILLARIA MELLEA 92 

ARSENATE OF LEAD 75, 81, 112, 114 

ARSENITE OP ZINC 81, 93,' 112,' 114 

ASPHALTUM FOR TREATING WOUNDS !____' 59 

ASPIDIOTUS PERNICIOSUS 88 

ATOMIC SULPHUR 96, 112, 115 

BACILLUS AMYLOVORUS 92 

BACTERIUM TUMEFACIENS 93 

BAILEY SWEET 15 

BALDWIN 14, 15, 16. 35, 67 

BALDWIN SPOT 16 

BALLARD. W. S 56, 57, 94 

BANANA _15, 28 

BEN DAVIS 15, 16, 36', 72 

BENTON, J. F 101 

BIETIGHEIMER 15 

BLACK BEN __14, 15, 16 

BLACK LEAF 40 76, 85, 86, 87, 88, 113 

BLIGHT 15, 92 

BLISTER MITE 91 

BLOOMING OF VARIETIES 36 

BORDEAUX MIXTURE 93, 112 

BORERS, conditions favorable for 47 

flat headed of apple 90 

BOYD, E. N 24 



] 18 INDEX. 

Page 

BRACING, NATURAL 57 

BREMNER, O. E - ' 87 

BROWN MITE 90 

BRYOBIA PRATENSIS 90 

BUDDING 32 

in new growth of old trees 60 

operation of 34 

BUDS, for budding purposes 31 

health promotes frost resistance 73 

only healthy should be used for budding 32 

selected carelessly for budding 36 

tying of 34 

BUD- WOOD 32 

BY-PRODUCTS '. 102. 103 

CALYX SPRAY FOR CODLING MOTH 81 

CANADA RED 15 

CAPILLARITY OF SOILS 64 

CHAMPION 15 

CHENANGO -- 15 

CHIONASPIS FURFUR A 88 

CHRYSOBOTHRIS FEMORATA 90 

CIDER -- 102 

CLEFT GRAFTING 60 

CLIMBING CUTWORMS 90 

COAL HEATERS FOR FROST PROTECTION—. 73 

CODLING MOTH 15, 67, 68, 75 

control of 76, 78, 79, 81, 82, S3, 84, 114 

life history of 79, 80 

COMMERCIAL FERTILIZERS 65 

CONSUMPTION OF APPLES 104 

CONTACT INSECTICIDES-- 112 

COOK'S SEEDLING 15 

CORROSIVE SUBLIMATE, disinfectant 92 

COVER CROPS 63, 65 

CRAB APPLES 16, 31 

CROPPING PREVIOUS TO SETTING TREES 39 

CROSS POLLINATION 35 

CROWN GALL 32, 37, 93 

CRUDE OIL EMULSION 87, 112, 113 

CULTIVATION 63, 73 

CUT-WORMS, climbing 90 

DELAWARE RED 15 

DELICIOUS 14, 15, 17, 35 

DEPTH TO PLANT 44 

DISEASES OF THE APPLE 92. 96 

freedom from 37 

DISTILLATE EMULSION 86, 112, 113 

DRIED APPLES 102 

DUST MULCH 64 

DYNAMITING FOR HARDPAN 42 

EARLY HARVEST 15, 36 

EMPOASCA MALI 88 

ERIOPHYES PYRI 91 

ERIOSOMA LANIGERA 84 

ESOPUS 14, 15, 25, 35 

ESSIG, E. O 88, 114 

FALLA WATER 15 

FALL CANKER WORM... 89 

FALL PIPPIN 15, 36 

FAMEUSE 14, 15, 36 

FEMMONS, FRANK 17 

FERTILIZERS 62, 63, 65 

FIRING FOR FROST PROTECTION 73 

FLAT HEADED APPLE TREE BORER 90 

FLAT HEADED BORERS 46 



INDEX. 119 

Page 
FLORENCE CRAB 16 

FORMULAE, spray I 112, 115 

FOURTH AND FIFTH SEASON PRUNING 54 

FROST, early blooming varieties affected by 23 

injury from 70, 72 

orchard heating to prevent injury from 7:; 

protection from 73. 7 4 

relation to apple growing 7 

smudging to control 73 

susceptibility of varieties to injury from 72 

FRUIT SPURS DEVELOPED BY SUMMER PRUNING 56, 57 

FUNGI, rot - 47 

FUNGICIDES 112. 115 

GANO 16 

GILLETTE, C. P 87 

GLORIA MUNDI 15 

GRADING 97, 98 

GRAFTING 32 

methods of 60 

selection of stock for ".1 

waxes 61 

GRAVENSTEIN 5. 14, 15, 19, 35 

methods of pruning at Sebastopol 53 

show at Sebastopol 104 

GRAY, GEO. P 03 

GREEN APPLE APHIS 23, 76, 88 

GRIMES 15, 10, 28 

GRIMES GOLDEN PIPPIN 19 

GYPSUM IN SOILS 38 

HARDPAN 38 

breaking with dynamite 42 

HARROWING 4 

HASSLER, J. E 21 

HEATING THE ORCHARD 7:: 

HEMEROCAMPA VETUSTA '. 89 

HEXAGONAL SYSTEM FOR PLANTING 40 

HOLES, digging for trees 42 

filling in ,__ 44 

HOOVER 15 

HOSE FOR SPRAYING 77 

HUMUS .: 39, 65 

HYSLOP CRAB 16, 36 

ILLUSTRATIONS — 

boxes of fruit stored in packing house, fig. 52 98 

bracing, natural, fig. 39 __ 58 

budding operations, figs. 17, 18, 19 32, 33 

calyces right for codling moth spray, fig. 48 82 

carton for apples, figs. 55, 56 101, 102 

Delicious, fig. 3 17 

Delicious tree, heavily loaded, fig. 4 18 

framework, crowded, fig. 27 1 48 

framework formed with three branches, fig. 29_ 49 

frost injury, figs. 45, 46 71 

frost russet, fig. 47 72 

Gravenstein, fig. 5 ! 18 

Gravenstein pruning, fig. 35 54 

Gravenstein well headed, fig. 36 55 

Grimes, fig. 6 19 

growth of heavily pruned Winesap. fig. 33 51 

heavily pruned young Winesap, fig. 32 51 

jelly exhibit, fig. 57 103 

Jonathan, fig. 7 '. 20 

Jonathan trees, fine specimens, fig. 8 21 

Jonathan tree, well loaded, fig. 9 22 

mildew on apple twig, fig. 50 94 



120 INDEX. 

ILLUSTRATIONS — Continued. Page 

orchard at Tehachapi, set well, fig. 24 42 

orchard scene near Julian, fig. 2 7 

orchard scene near Sugar Pine, fig. 1 6 

packed boxes, Yellow Bellflowers, fig. 53 99 

packed box showing bulge, fig. 54 100 

picking bucket, fig. 51 97 

planting systems, figs. 20, 21, 22, 23 41 

Rome Beauty, fig. 10 23 

Rome Beauty, young tree, fig. 11 24 

saw, pruning, fig. 40 59 

scab on apple, fig. 49 93 

Sebastopol Apple Show Exhibit, fig. 58 105 

second season pruning, figs. 30, 31 50 

setting board, fig. 25 44 

shears, pruning, fig. 41 . 59 

shears, thinning, fig. 44 69 

Stayman Winesap, heavily loaded, fig. 12 25 

summer pruned Yellow Newtown, fig. 37 : 56 

third season pruning, fig. 34 53 

tillage well cared for, figs. 42, 43 €3, 64 

tree shown in figs. 32, 33, pruned, fig. 33a 52 

unpruned, branches slender, fig. 28 48 

Winesap, fig. 14 27 

WinterPearmain, fig. 13 26 

Yellow Bellfiower, fig. 15 29 

Yellow Newtown, fig. 16 30 

Yellow Newtowns on summer pruned tree, fig. 38 57 

young tree cut back when set, fig. 26 47 

INSECTICIDES - li2 

INSECT PESTS OF THE APPLE 79 

INSPECTION BY COUNTY HORTICULTURAL COMMISSIONERS 37 

INTERCROPPING 62 

IRON SULPHIDE --95, 112 

IRRIGATION 63 

difficult with improper leveling 39 

influence of plowing upon 40 

influence upon frost 73 

of young orchard 45 

relation to intercrops 62 

JELLY, apple— 16 - 102 

exhibit at California Apple Show 103 

JONATHAN 14, 15. 20, 21, 22, 31, 35 

relation of early blooming to freezing 72 

spot disease of 21 

JULIAN DUCHESS 14 > 15 

KENTUCKY RED STREAK 36 

KERF GRAFTING 60 

KEROSENE EMULSION 112 . 113 

KESWICK CODLING 15 

KING 14 ' 15 

KING DAVID 14 - 15 > 21 

LABELS FOR BOXES 100 _ 

LANKFORD lo 

15 



so 



LAWVER 

LAYING OUT ORCHARD TRACT___ 

LEAD PAINT FOR WOUNDS 

LEAF HOPPER OF THE APPLE 

LEAF ROLLER OF THE APPLE 

LEGUMES 39, H 

LEPIDOSAPHES ULMI 88 

LEVELING 3 J* 

LIME, addition to soils deficient in 

for whitewash . 

use with Paris green 81, 



INDEX. 121 

Page 

LIME-SULPHUR 86, 88, 93 

commercial 112 

homemade 112 

self-boiled 112, 115 

MACHINES FOR SPRAYING 77 

MACKAY, L. GERTRUDE 104 

MAIDEN BLUSH 15, 35 

MALACOSOMA AMERICANA 89 

MALACOSOMA DISSTRIA 89 

MAMMOTH BLACK TWIG 16 

MANN 15 

MARL 38 

MARTHA CRAB 16 

MASKEW, FREDERICK 36 

MATURE TREE PRUNING 56 

McGOWAN, MRS. HUGH 103 

Mcintosh 15 

McMAHON WHITE 15 

MECHANICAL GRADERS 9 8 

MILDEW 75, 115 

affecting Yellow Newtowns 30 

powdery of the apple 94 

MILLED SULPHUR 96, 112, 115 

MINERAL NITRATES 66 

MINKLBR 15 

MISSOURI PIPPIN 15, 36 

MITES 115 

MONTREAL CRAB 36 

NATURAL BRACING 57 

NATURAL ENEMIES OF THE WOOLLY APHIS 85 

NELSON, PROF. J. W 38 

NICOTINE 75, 112, 113 

NITRATE OF SODA, SPRAYING 65 

NITROGEN 39, 65 

NONE-SUCH 36 

NORTHERN SPY 15, 35 

NORTHWESTERN 15 

NOZZLES 77 

NUMBER OF TREES PER ACRE 40 

OAK ROOT FUNGUS 92 

OIL HEATERS FOR FROST PROTECTION 73 

OLDENBURG 15 

ORANGE PIPPIN 15 

ORCHARD HEATING 73, 71 

ORTLEY 15, 22, 28, 35 

OYSTER SHELL SCALE 88 

PACKING 1 97 

size of boxes and styles of pack 99 

special packages 100 

PACKING HOUSES HARBOR CODLING MOTH 84 

PAINTING WOUNDS 59 

PALEACRITA VERNATA 89 

PARAGON 14, 15 

PARIS GREEN 81, 112, 114 

PARTHENOCARPIC DEVELOPMENT OF FRUIT___ 70 

PEWAUKEE 15 

PICKING -__ 97, 98 

PIPING SYSTEM OF SPRAYING 77 

PLANT FOOD, healing by 5S 

taken from soil by cover crops 62 

PLANTING 38-43 

number of trees per acre 40 

preparation of soils for 38 

selection of trees for 35 

systems 40 



122 INDEX. 

Page 

PLANT LICE _:___:__ 75 

PLOWING 40 

PLUM CIDER 15 

PODOSPH/ERA LEUCOTRICHA 94 

PODOSPHJERA OXYACANTH2E 94 

POINTS ESTABLISHED FOR TREES IN SETTING ___ 43 

POISONOUS INSECTICIDES 112 

POLLINATION OF VARIETIES 36 

POWER SPRAYERS __J 7 7 

PRODUCTION _•__ 104 

PROPAGATION 31, 34 

PROTECTION OF APPLES FROM FREEZING 70 

PROTECTORS FOR YOUNG TREES 45 

PRUNING 15. 27, 28, 46, 49 

annually - 54 

cutting to outside buds 55 

fourth and fifth seasons _ 54 

heavy with Jonathan : 21 

height of head 46 

influence of variety on 52, 56 

influence upon frost 73 

low heading 46 

mature trees^ 56 

saw 59 

second season i__ 47 

shears 59 

summer 47, 56, 57 

third season 52 

to control mildew 30 

young tree when set : 46 

PURPLE APPLE APHIS___ 1 S6 

QUESTIONS SENT TO APPLE GROWERS 9 

QUINCUNX SYSTEM FOR PLANTING 40 

RAFFIA BUDDING FIBRE 34 

RAKER. JUDGE J. S._ 99 

RALLS 15, 72 

RAMBO 15 

RECIPES 106-111 

RED ASTRACHAN 15, 36 

RED HUMPED CATERPILLAR 90 

RED JUNE 15 

RED PEARMAIN 15 

RED WINTER 15 

REED, HAYWARD 77 

REGIONS FOR APPLES OUTLINED BY WICKSON 5 

RESTSTANT VARIETIES TO WOOLLY APHIS ATTACK 85 

RHODE ISLAND GREENING 14, 15, 25, 36 

RODENTS, protection against 45 

RODGERS BROS 100 

RODS FOR SPRAYING 77 

ROMANITE 15 

ROME BEAUTY 14, 15, 23, 24, 35 

late blooming habit 72 

pruning of 52 

ROOT-GRAFTING 34 

ROOT-HAIRS - 46 

ROOTS, SEEDLING 34 

ROOT SYSTEM DAMAGED IN DIGGING 46 

ROT-FUNGI _' 47, 58, 59 

ROWE, GEORGE 24 

RUSSETING FROM FROST - 72 

PAN JOSE SCALE 88, 104 



INDEX. 123 

Page 

SCAB 115 

affecting Yellow Newtowns 30 

description and control of 92 

knowledge necessary in spraying for 75 

SCALE, San Jose, scurfy and oyster shell 8S 

8^ fHIZURA CONCINNA 90 

SCIONS 60 

SECOND CODLING MOTH SPRAY___ 83 

SECOND SEASON PRUNING 47 

SEED, instructions for sowing 3] 

SEEDLINGS 31 

roots 34 

union of buds with stem 32 

SETTING BOARD 44 

SHEEPNOSE 15 

SHERIFF 15 

SHOCKDEY 36 

SIBERIAN CRAB 16 

SMITH 15, 36 

SMOKEHOUSE 15 

SMUDGING 73 

SOIL 38 

baking of 45 

deficiency of nitrogen 62 

hardpan 38 

Norfolk sandy loam 39 

Portsmouth sandy loam 39 

retention of moisture 63 

SPITZENBERG 25 

SPRAY FORMULAE 112 

SPRAYING 15, 73, 75 

influence upon quality 102 

machines 77 

piping system of 77 

quantity of material for 78 

SPRING CANKER WORM 89 

SQUARE SYSTEM FOR PLANTING TREES 40 

STANDARDIZATION METHODS AFFECTED BY THINNING 67 

STARK : 15 

STATISTICS, tables of 5, 10, 11, 12, 13 

STAYMAN WINESAP 15, 25 

STUBS 47, 58, 61 

SUMMER, cultivation 65 

pruning 47, 56, 57 

varieties 15 

SUN-BORERS 46 

SUN-SCALD ___, - 45, 46, 47 

SUTTON 14, 15 

SWAAR, 14, 15 

TAYLOR, E. P 87 

TENT CATERPILLARS 89 

TERMITES 47 

THERMOMETERS FOR ORCHARD HEATING WORK 74 

THINNING 67, 68, 69 

necessary for best results 27 

of Gravensteins 19 

THIRD CODLING MOTH SPRAY 83 

THIRD SEASON PRUNING 52 

THOROUGHNESS IN SPRAYING 77 

TOLMAN 1 15 

TOP-WORKING APPLE TREES . 60 

TRANSCENDENT CRABS 16, 36 

TREATMENT OF WOUNDS 59 

TREE PROTECTORS 45 

TRIANGULAR SYSTEM FOR PLANTING 40 



124 INDEX. 

Page 

TUSSOCK MOTH 89 

TWENTY OUNCE 15 

UTTER 15 

VARIETIES, adaptation of 3S 

cross pollination of 35 

description of 16-30 

list of 14, 15 

selection of for planting' 35, 36 

self fertility of 35 

size varies with 67 

supplementary list of 15 

undesirable should be removed 7 

variation in time of blooming 36 

VENTURIA INAEQUALIS 92 

VINEGAR 102 

A^OLCK, W. H 56, 57, 66, 94 

WAGENER 14, 15, 26 

WALBRIDGE 15 

WALTERS, S. A 103 

WATER SPROUTS 56 

WAXES, grafting 61 

WEALTHY 15 

WELDON, MRS. GEO. P 104 

WHALE OIL SOAP --88, 112, 114 

WHIPPLE, PROP. O. B 70 

WHITE BELLFLOWER 22 

WHITE PIPPIN 15 

WHITEWASH 45 

WHITNEY CRAB 16 

WICKSON, PROF. E. J 5, 31 

WILSON, PROF. H. F 87, 113 

WINESAP 14, 15, 16, 26, 28, 35, 36, 52, 67 

WINTER BANANA ' 2S 

WINTER PEARMAIN 14, 15, 27, 35, 36 

WOLF RIVER 15 

WOOLLY APHIS 23, 37, 75, 84, 85 

WOUNDS, treatment of 59 

WRAPPING PAPER 100 

YELLOW BELLFLOWER 5, 14, 15, 22, 28, 30, 35, 36, 71, 72, 99 

YELLOW NEWTOWN 5, 14, 15, 28, 29, 35, 99 

YELLOW TRANSPARENT 15, 36 

YORK IMPERIAL 15 

YOUNG TREES, caring for 44, 45 



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^y 



